简介
Hydrogels are networks of polymer chains which can produce a colloidal gel containing over 99 per cent water. The superabsorbency and permeability of naturally occurring and synthetic hydrogels give this class of materials an amazing array of uses. These uses range from wound dressings and skin grafts to oxygen-permeable contact lenses to biodegradable delivery systems for drugs or pesticides and scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Biomedical Applications of Hydrogels Handbook provides a comprehensive description of this diverse class of materials, covering both synthesis and properties and a broad range of research and commercial applications. The Handbook is divided into four sections:聽Stimuli-Sensitive Hydrogels, Hydrogels for Drug Delivery,聽Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering, and Hydrogels with聽 Unique Properties. Key Features: Provides comprehensive coverage of the basic science and applications of a diverse class of materials Includes both naturally occurring and synthetic hydrogels Edited and written by worldwide leaders in the field Editorial Advisory Board: Nicholas A. Peppas, Chair (The University of Texas at Austin) 聽 Allan Hoffman (University of Washington) Emo Chiellini (University of Pisa) 聽 Fu-Zhai Cui (Tsinghua University) 聽 Karel Dusek (Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic) 聽 Jindrich Kopecek (University of Utah) 聽 Claudio Migliaresi (University of Trento) 聽 Yoshihito Osada (Hokkaido University) 聽 Buddy D. Ratner (University of Washington) Nathan Ravi (Washington University in St. Louis) 聽 Etienne Schacht (Ghent University) 聽 Tianwei Tan (Bejing University of Chemical Technology)
目录
Biomedical Applications of Hydrogels Handbook 1
Editor-in-Chief Raphael M. Ottenbrite Editors Kinam Park Teruo Okano 3
Preface 7
Contents 9
List of Contributors 17
Introduction to Hydrogels 21
Crosslinked Polymers 21
Hydrogels Synthesis 22
Expansion of a Hydrogels Structure 23
Swelling Forces in Hydrogels 24
Swelling Mechanism 26
Water in Hydrogels 26
Hydrogels Properties 28
Hydrogels Characterization 28
Hydrogels Applications 32
Summary 35
References 35
Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels and Their Application to Functional Materials 38
Introduction 38
Stimuli-Responsive Gels as Functional Materials 38
Function of Mechanical Motion 39
Function of Information Transmission and Transformation 39
Shape Memory 39
Optical Function 39
Molecular Recognition 40
Function of Mass Transport 40
Pulsatile Drug Release Control Using Hydrogels 40
Intelligent Surfaces for Bioseparation 41
Cell-Sheet Engineering Using an Intelligent Surface 43
Cell-Sheet Engineering 43
Intelligent Surfaces 45
Immobilization of Cell-Adhesive Peptides 45
Micropatterned Surfaces 47
Design of Network Structure for Functional Gels 48
Topological Gels, Double Network Structure Gels, Nanocomposite Gels 48
Graft Gels 49
Microfabrication of Gels 49
Self-Oscillating Gels as Novel Biomimetic Materials 50
Design of Self-Oscillating Gels 51
Self-Oscillating Behavior of the Gels 52
Self-Oscillation of the Miniature Bulk Gels 52
Control of Oscillation Period and Amplitude 53
On\u2013Off Regulation of Self-Beating Motion 53
Peristaltic Motion of Gels with Propagation of Chemical Wave 53
Design of Biomimetic Micro-/Nanoactuator Using Self-Oscillating Polymers and Gels 53
Self-Walking Gels 53
Microfabrication of the Gels by Lithography 56
Control of Chemical Wave Propagation in Self-Oscillating Gels Array 56
Self-Oscillating Polymer Chains as a \u201cNano-oscillator\u201d 57
Self-Flocculating/Dispersing Oscillation of Microgels 57
Fabrication of Microgel Beads Monolayer 59
Self-Oscillation Under Physiological Conditions 60
References 60
Feedback Control Systems Using Environmentally and Enzymatically Sensitive Hydrogels 63
Hydrogels as Basic Functional Elements of a Control System 63
Hydrogels in Sensors 65
Optical Transduction 65
Mechanical Transduction 66
Electric Transduction 66
Limitation of Enzyme Secondary Substrate 66
Preservation of Enzyme Activity 68
Hydrogels as Actuators 68
Magnetically Controlled Systems 69
Ultrasonically Controlled Systems 69
Electronically Controlled Systems 69
Photo-Controlled Systems 69
Thermally Controlled Systems 71
Chemically Controlled Systems 71
Protein Responsive and Controlled Systems 72
Self-Regulated Hydrogels-Based Systems 73
pH Feedback Systems 73
Temperature Feedback Systems 75
Protein Concentration Feedback Systems 75
Enzyme Cofactor Feedback System 75
Glucose Concentration Feedback Systems 76
Hydrogels-Based Feedforward and Cascade Systems 78
Summary 80
References 81
Biomolecule-Responsive Hydrogels 83
Introduction 83
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels 84
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels Using Glucose Oxidase 84
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels Using Phenylboronic Acid 85
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels Using Lectin 87
Protein-Responsive Hydrogels 90
Enzyme-Responsive Hydrogels 90
Antigen-Responsive Hydrogels 92
Other Biomolecule-Responsive Hydrogels 95
Molecularly Imprinted Hydrogels 95
Other Biomolecule-Responsive Hydrogels 98
Summary 102
References 102
Stimuli-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels for Smart Nanomedicine 105
Introduction 105
Synthesis and Characterization of Stimuli-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels 106
Tumor-Specific Smart 19F MRI Nanoprobes Based on pH-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels 108
pH-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels for Intracellular Drug Delivery Systems 112
Smart Apoptosis Nanoprobe Based on the PEGylated Nanogels Containing GNPs for Monitoring the Cancer Response to Therapy 116
Summary 122
References 122
Stimuli-Sensitive Microhydrogels 124
Introduction 124
Stimuli-Sensitive Microgels 124
Preparation of Microhydrogels 124
Microgel Preparation by Particle-Forming Polymerization 125
Microgel Preparation by Surface Modification of Core Particle 125
Microgel Preparation by Assembling Polymer Molecules in Solution 126
Stimuli Responsiveness of Microhydrogels 126
Temperature Responsiveness of Microhydrogels 126
Microgel Volume Phase Transition Temperature 126
Temperature Dependent Hydrophilicity\u2013Hydrophobicity of Microgel 128
pH Responsiveness of Microhydrogels 128
Responsiveness of Microhydrogels to Other Stimuli 129
Multistimuli-Sensitive Microhydrogels 129
Preparation of Inorganic Nanoparticles/Polymer Composite Microgel 129
Preparation of Inorganic Microgel Composites 129
Polymer Composite Microgel Functions 131
Noble Metal Nanoparticles/PNIPAM Composite Microgel 131
Metal Oxide Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Polymer Composite Microgels 131
Magnetite Nanoparticles/PNIPAM Composite Microgels 131
Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 132
Titania Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 133
Photoluminescent Nanocrystals/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 133
Miscellaneous Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 133
Assemblies and Colloid Crystals of Thermosensitive Microgels 134
Summary 134
References 134
In-Situ Gelling Stimuli-Sensitive PEG-Based Amphiphilic Copolymer Hydrogels 138
Introduction 138
Thermogelling PEG\u2013PNIPAM Block Copolymers 139
Pluronic-Based In-Situ Forming Hydrogels 141
Thermogelling PEG/PLGA Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 142
Thermogelling Star-Shaped and Graft PEG/PLGA Amphiphilic Copolymers 146
Thermogelling PEG\u2013PCL Amphiphilic Copolymers 147
Thermogelling PEG-Based Amphiphilic Multiblock Copolymers 149
pH- and Thermo-Sensitive PEG\u2013Polyester Amphiphilic Copolymer Hydrogels 149
PEG-Based Amphiphilic Copolymers Modified by Anionic Weak Polyelectrolytes 150
PEG-Based Amphiphilic Copolymers Modified by Cationic Weak Polyelectrolytes 153
Summary 156
Acknowledgments 157
References 157
Biodegradable Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Release 162
Introduction 162
The Nature of Biodegradable Hydrogels 163
Physical Hydrogels 164
Hydrophobic Interactions Hydrogels 165
Ionic Interaction Hydrogels 167
Hydrogen Bonded Hydrogels 168
Chemically Bonded Hydrogels 168
Summary 169
References 169
Thermo-Responsive Biodegradable Hydrogels from Stereocomplexed Poly(lactide)s 171
Introduction 171
Micelles and Hydrogels with Various Block, Graft, and Armed PLA Copolymers 172
Stereocomplexation of Enantiomeric PLAs, and the Hydrogels Applications 173
Hydrogels Study on Enantiomeric PLA\u2013PEG Linear Block Copolymers 176
Motivation for the Study of Stereocomplexed Micellar Hydrogels 176
Copolymer Synthesis and Gels Formation 177
Hydrogels from Micellar Solutions of ABA Triblock Copolymers 177
Hydrogels from BAB Triblock Copolymers 181
Hydrogels from AB Diblock Copolymers 182
Hydrogels Properties and Applications 187
Summary 187
References 187
Hydrogels-Based Drug Delivery System with Molecular Imaging 192
Introduction 192
Hydrogels Polymers for Imaging Probes 193
Poly(Ethylene Glycol) (PEG) and Its Copolymers 196
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAm) 196
Molecular Probes for Imaging 197
Gold Nanoparticles 197
Magnetic Nanoparticles 197
Fluorescence Dyes 198
Microbubbles 200
Quantum Dots 200
Molecular Probe/Polymer Composite Systems 200
Iron Oxide Nanoparticle/Polymer Composite Systems 202
Quantum Dot/Polymer Composite Systems 203
Microbubble/Polymer Composite Systems 204
Drug Delivery System with Molecular Imaging Capability 204
Summary 206
References 206
Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications 215
Introduction 215
Hydrogels Designs for Tissue Engineering 216
Crosslinking Methods to Form Hydrogels 218
Chemical Crosslinking by Radical Polymerization 218
Crosslinking Functional Groups 219
Crosslinking by Enzymatic Reactions 222
Crosslinking by Stereocomplexation 223
Hydrogels by Thermo-Gelation 224
Crosslinking by Self Assembly 224
Crosslinking by Inclusion Complexation 225
Combining Physical and Chemical Crosslinking 226
Naturally Derived Hydrogels 227
Protein-Based Polymers 227
Polysaccharides 228
Synthetic Hydrogels 229
Hydrogels Based on PEG\u2013PLA and PEG\u2013PGA Copolymers 229
Fumaric Acid-Based Hydrogels 229
Hybrid Hydrogels 229
Tissue Engineering Applications 231
Bone Graft Substitutes 231
Cartilage Regeneration 232
Summary 233
References 233
Composite Hydrogels for Scaffold Design, Tissue Engineering, and Prostheses 238
Introduction 238
Basic Concepts and Properties 239
Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration 246
Composite hydrogels for bone replacement: 248
Composite hydrogels for menisci: 250
Composite hydrogels for cartilage: 251
Summary 253
References 253
Hydrogels for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 257
Introduction 257
Characterization of Hydrogels 258
Theory of Viscoelastic Behavior 258
Cartilage Morphology, Properties and Diseases 260
Composition of Articular Cartilage 260
Chondrocyte 260
Histological Organization of Articular Cartilage 261
Extracellular Matrix (ECM) 263
Pathology of Articular Cartilage 263
Cartilage Repair 264
Cartilage Regeneration 265
Tissue Engineering (TE) 265
Cell Origins 266
Scaffolds 267
Hydrogels Polymers (FIGURE 4) 267
In Situ Crosslinkable Hydrogels 271
Polymer Associations 272
Physical and Mechanical Behavior 272
Summary 274
References 274
Gelatin-Based Hydrogels for Controlled Cell Assembly 279
Introduction 279
Gelatin-Based Hydrogels for the Controlled Hepatocyte Assembly 284
Establishing a Multicellular Model by 3D Cell Assembly for Metabolic Syndrome 288
Cryopreservation of 3D Constructs Based on Controlled Cell Assembly 290
Summary 292
References 293
Double Network Hydrogels as Tough, Durable Tissue Substitutes 295
Introduction 295
Robust Gels with High Elasticity 296
DN Gels from Synthetic Polymers 296
Necking Phenomenon of DN Gels 298
Local Damage Zone Model for the Toughening Mechanism of DN Gels 300
Robust Gels from Bacterial Cellulose 300
Sliding Friction of Gels 302
Frictional Behavior of Gels 302
Dependence on Load 302
Sample Area Dependence 303
Substrate Effect 304
Extremely Low Friction Gels 305
Template Effect on Gels Surface Structure and Its Friction 305
Robust Hydrogels with Low Friction as Candidates for Artificial Cartilage 306
Wear Properties of Robust DN Gels 308
Biocompatibility of Robust DN Hydrogels 308
Evaluation of Robust Gels 308
Summary 310
References 311
Hydrogels Contact Lenses 312
Introduction 312
Contact Lens Terminology 315
Materials Used for Hydrogels Contact Lenses 316
HEMA 316
Other Glycol Methacrylates 316
Dihydroxy Methacrylates 317
Methacrylic Acid 317
Acrylamides 318
1-Vinyl-2-Pyrrolidone 319
FDA Contact Classification 319
Selected Types of Hydrogels Contact Lens Materials 320
Silicone Hydrogels 321
Current Trends in Silicone-Hydrogels Lenses 322
Summary 322
References 323
Electroconductive Hydrogels 326
Introduction 326
Inherently Conductive Electroactive Polymers [28] 327
Hydrogels [37] 330
Electroconductive Hydrogels 332
Synthesis of Electroconductive Hydrogels 333
Summary 340
References 340
Self-assembled Nanogel Engineering 345
Introduction 345
Self-Assembled Polysaccharide Nanogels 345
Stimuli-Responsive Self-Assembled Nanogels 347
Thermoresponsive Nanogels 348
Dual Stimuli (Heat-Redox)-Responsive Nanogels 349
Photoresponsive Nanogels 350
Biomedical Applications of Polysaccharide Nanogels 351
Design and Function of Nanogel-Based Hydrogels Materials 352
Hybrid gels Crosslinked by Polymerizable Nanogels 352
Rapid Shrinking Hydrogels Using Nanogel Crosslinker 353
Biodegradable Nanogel-Crosslinked Hydrogels and Application in Regenerative Medicine 353
Summary 354
References 354
Engineered High Swelling Hydrogels 357
Introduction 357
Engineered Hydrogels 358
Purity of HSHs 364
Hydrogels Characterization 366
Hydrogels Stability 370
Engineered HSH Polymers 371
Summary 375
References 375
Superabsorbent Hydrogels 381
Introduction 381
Hydrogels Swelling 382
Mechanism of hydrogels Swelling 384
The Effect of Neutralization and Acidity on the Swelling Capacity of Polycarbonic Acids 386
Donnan\u2019s Equilibrium and Potential in a hydrogels Solution System 386
Effect of Concentration Redistribution 390
Kinetics of Hydrogels Swelling 393
Summary 396
References 396
Editor-in-Chief Raphael M. Ottenbrite Editors Kinam Park Teruo Okano 3
Preface 7
Contents 9
List of Contributors 17
Introduction to Hydrogels 21
Crosslinked Polymers 21
Hydrogels Synthesis 22
Expansion of a Hydrogels Structure 23
Swelling Forces in Hydrogels 24
Swelling Mechanism 26
Water in Hydrogels 26
Hydrogels Properties 28
Hydrogels Characterization 28
Hydrogels Applications 32
Summary 35
References 35
Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels and Their Application to Functional Materials 38
Introduction 38
Stimuli-Responsive Gels as Functional Materials 38
Function of Mechanical Motion 39
Function of Information Transmission and Transformation 39
Shape Memory 39
Optical Function 39
Molecular Recognition 40
Function of Mass Transport 40
Pulsatile Drug Release Control Using Hydrogels 40
Intelligent Surfaces for Bioseparation 41
Cell-Sheet Engineering Using an Intelligent Surface 43
Cell-Sheet Engineering 43
Intelligent Surfaces 45
Immobilization of Cell-Adhesive Peptides 45
Micropatterned Surfaces 47
Design of Network Structure for Functional Gels 48
Topological Gels, Double Network Structure Gels, Nanocomposite Gels 48
Graft Gels 49
Microfabrication of Gels 49
Self-Oscillating Gels as Novel Biomimetic Materials 50
Design of Self-Oscillating Gels 51
Self-Oscillating Behavior of the Gels 52
Self-Oscillation of the Miniature Bulk Gels 52
Control of Oscillation Period and Amplitude 53
On\u2013Off Regulation of Self-Beating Motion 53
Peristaltic Motion of Gels with Propagation of Chemical Wave 53
Design of Biomimetic Micro-/Nanoactuator Using Self-Oscillating Polymers and Gels 53
Self-Walking Gels 53
Microfabrication of the Gels by Lithography 56
Control of Chemical Wave Propagation in Self-Oscillating Gels Array 56
Self-Oscillating Polymer Chains as a \u201cNano-oscillator\u201d 57
Self-Flocculating/Dispersing Oscillation of Microgels 57
Fabrication of Microgel Beads Monolayer 59
Self-Oscillation Under Physiological Conditions 60
References 60
Feedback Control Systems Using Environmentally and Enzymatically Sensitive Hydrogels 63
Hydrogels as Basic Functional Elements of a Control System 63
Hydrogels in Sensors 65
Optical Transduction 65
Mechanical Transduction 66
Electric Transduction 66
Limitation of Enzyme Secondary Substrate 66
Preservation of Enzyme Activity 68
Hydrogels as Actuators 68
Magnetically Controlled Systems 69
Ultrasonically Controlled Systems 69
Electronically Controlled Systems 69
Photo-Controlled Systems 69
Thermally Controlled Systems 71
Chemically Controlled Systems 71
Protein Responsive and Controlled Systems 72
Self-Regulated Hydrogels-Based Systems 73
pH Feedback Systems 73
Temperature Feedback Systems 75
Protein Concentration Feedback Systems 75
Enzyme Cofactor Feedback System 75
Glucose Concentration Feedback Systems 76
Hydrogels-Based Feedforward and Cascade Systems 78
Summary 80
References 81
Biomolecule-Responsive Hydrogels 83
Introduction 83
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels 84
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels Using Glucose Oxidase 84
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels Using Phenylboronic Acid 85
Glucose-Responsive Hydrogels Using Lectin 87
Protein-Responsive Hydrogels 90
Enzyme-Responsive Hydrogels 90
Antigen-Responsive Hydrogels 92
Other Biomolecule-Responsive Hydrogels 95
Molecularly Imprinted Hydrogels 95
Other Biomolecule-Responsive Hydrogels 98
Summary 102
References 102
Stimuli-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels for Smart Nanomedicine 105
Introduction 105
Synthesis and Characterization of Stimuli-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels 106
Tumor-Specific Smart 19F MRI Nanoprobes Based on pH-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels 108
pH-Responsive PEGylated Nanogels for Intracellular Drug Delivery Systems 112
Smart Apoptosis Nanoprobe Based on the PEGylated Nanogels Containing GNPs for Monitoring the Cancer Response to Therapy 116
Summary 122
References 122
Stimuli-Sensitive Microhydrogels 124
Introduction 124
Stimuli-Sensitive Microgels 124
Preparation of Microhydrogels 124
Microgel Preparation by Particle-Forming Polymerization 125
Microgel Preparation by Surface Modification of Core Particle 125
Microgel Preparation by Assembling Polymer Molecules in Solution 126
Stimuli Responsiveness of Microhydrogels 126
Temperature Responsiveness of Microhydrogels 126
Microgel Volume Phase Transition Temperature 126
Temperature Dependent Hydrophilicity\u2013Hydrophobicity of Microgel 128
pH Responsiveness of Microhydrogels 128
Responsiveness of Microhydrogels to Other Stimuli 129
Multistimuli-Sensitive Microhydrogels 129
Preparation of Inorganic Nanoparticles/Polymer Composite Microgel 129
Preparation of Inorganic Microgel Composites 129
Polymer Composite Microgel Functions 131
Noble Metal Nanoparticles/PNIPAM Composite Microgel 131
Metal Oxide Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Polymer Composite Microgels 131
Magnetite Nanoparticles/PNIPAM Composite Microgels 131
Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 132
Titania Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 133
Photoluminescent Nanocrystals/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 133
Miscellaneous Nanoparticles/Thermosensitive Composite Microgels 133
Assemblies and Colloid Crystals of Thermosensitive Microgels 134
Summary 134
References 134
In-Situ Gelling Stimuli-Sensitive PEG-Based Amphiphilic Copolymer Hydrogels 138
Introduction 138
Thermogelling PEG\u2013PNIPAM Block Copolymers 139
Pluronic-Based In-Situ Forming Hydrogels 141
Thermogelling PEG/PLGA Amphiphilic Block Copolymers 142
Thermogelling Star-Shaped and Graft PEG/PLGA Amphiphilic Copolymers 146
Thermogelling PEG\u2013PCL Amphiphilic Copolymers 147
Thermogelling PEG-Based Amphiphilic Multiblock Copolymers 149
pH- and Thermo-Sensitive PEG\u2013Polyester Amphiphilic Copolymer Hydrogels 149
PEG-Based Amphiphilic Copolymers Modified by Anionic Weak Polyelectrolytes 150
PEG-Based Amphiphilic Copolymers Modified by Cationic Weak Polyelectrolytes 153
Summary 156
Acknowledgments 157
References 157
Biodegradable Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Release 162
Introduction 162
The Nature of Biodegradable Hydrogels 163
Physical Hydrogels 164
Hydrophobic Interactions Hydrogels 165
Ionic Interaction Hydrogels 167
Hydrogen Bonded Hydrogels 168
Chemically Bonded Hydrogels 168
Summary 169
References 169
Thermo-Responsive Biodegradable Hydrogels from Stereocomplexed Poly(lactide)s 171
Introduction 171
Micelles and Hydrogels with Various Block, Graft, and Armed PLA Copolymers 172
Stereocomplexation of Enantiomeric PLAs, and the Hydrogels Applications 173
Hydrogels Study on Enantiomeric PLA\u2013PEG Linear Block Copolymers 176
Motivation for the Study of Stereocomplexed Micellar Hydrogels 176
Copolymer Synthesis and Gels Formation 177
Hydrogels from Micellar Solutions of ABA Triblock Copolymers 177
Hydrogels from BAB Triblock Copolymers 181
Hydrogels from AB Diblock Copolymers 182
Hydrogels Properties and Applications 187
Summary 187
References 187
Hydrogels-Based Drug Delivery System with Molecular Imaging 192
Introduction 192
Hydrogels Polymers for Imaging Probes 193
Poly(Ethylene Glycol) (PEG) and Its Copolymers 196
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAm) 196
Molecular Probes for Imaging 197
Gold Nanoparticles 197
Magnetic Nanoparticles 197
Fluorescence Dyes 198
Microbubbles 200
Quantum Dots 200
Molecular Probe/Polymer Composite Systems 200
Iron Oxide Nanoparticle/Polymer Composite Systems 202
Quantum Dot/Polymer Composite Systems 203
Microbubble/Polymer Composite Systems 204
Drug Delivery System with Molecular Imaging Capability 204
Summary 206
References 206
Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications 215
Introduction 215
Hydrogels Designs for Tissue Engineering 216
Crosslinking Methods to Form Hydrogels 218
Chemical Crosslinking by Radical Polymerization 218
Crosslinking Functional Groups 219
Crosslinking by Enzymatic Reactions 222
Crosslinking by Stereocomplexation 223
Hydrogels by Thermo-Gelation 224
Crosslinking by Self Assembly 224
Crosslinking by Inclusion Complexation 225
Combining Physical and Chemical Crosslinking 226
Naturally Derived Hydrogels 227
Protein-Based Polymers 227
Polysaccharides 228
Synthetic Hydrogels 229
Hydrogels Based on PEG\u2013PLA and PEG\u2013PGA Copolymers 229
Fumaric Acid-Based Hydrogels 229
Hybrid Hydrogels 229
Tissue Engineering Applications 231
Bone Graft Substitutes 231
Cartilage Regeneration 232
Summary 233
References 233
Composite Hydrogels for Scaffold Design, Tissue Engineering, and Prostheses 238
Introduction 238
Basic Concepts and Properties 239
Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration 246
Composite hydrogels for bone replacement: 248
Composite hydrogels for menisci: 250
Composite hydrogels for cartilage: 251
Summary 253
References 253
Hydrogels for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 257
Introduction 257
Characterization of Hydrogels 258
Theory of Viscoelastic Behavior 258
Cartilage Morphology, Properties and Diseases 260
Composition of Articular Cartilage 260
Chondrocyte 260
Histological Organization of Articular Cartilage 261
Extracellular Matrix (ECM) 263
Pathology of Articular Cartilage 263
Cartilage Repair 264
Cartilage Regeneration 265
Tissue Engineering (TE) 265
Cell Origins 266
Scaffolds 267
Hydrogels Polymers (FIGURE 4) 267
In Situ Crosslinkable Hydrogels 271
Polymer Associations 272
Physical and Mechanical Behavior 272
Summary 274
References 274
Gelatin-Based Hydrogels for Controlled Cell Assembly 279
Introduction 279
Gelatin-Based Hydrogels for the Controlled Hepatocyte Assembly 284
Establishing a Multicellular Model by 3D Cell Assembly for Metabolic Syndrome 288
Cryopreservation of 3D Constructs Based on Controlled Cell Assembly 290
Summary 292
References 293
Double Network Hydrogels as Tough, Durable Tissue Substitutes 295
Introduction 295
Robust Gels with High Elasticity 296
DN Gels from Synthetic Polymers 296
Necking Phenomenon of DN Gels 298
Local Damage Zone Model for the Toughening Mechanism of DN Gels 300
Robust Gels from Bacterial Cellulose 300
Sliding Friction of Gels 302
Frictional Behavior of Gels 302
Dependence on Load 302
Sample Area Dependence 303
Substrate Effect 304
Extremely Low Friction Gels 305
Template Effect on Gels Surface Structure and Its Friction 305
Robust Hydrogels with Low Friction as Candidates for Artificial Cartilage 306
Wear Properties of Robust DN Gels 308
Biocompatibility of Robust DN Hydrogels 308
Evaluation of Robust Gels 308
Summary 310
References 311
Hydrogels Contact Lenses 312
Introduction 312
Contact Lens Terminology 315
Materials Used for Hydrogels Contact Lenses 316
HEMA 316
Other Glycol Methacrylates 316
Dihydroxy Methacrylates 317
Methacrylic Acid 317
Acrylamides 318
1-Vinyl-2-Pyrrolidone 319
FDA Contact Classification 319
Selected Types of Hydrogels Contact Lens Materials 320
Silicone Hydrogels 321
Current Trends in Silicone-Hydrogels Lenses 322
Summary 322
References 323
Electroconductive Hydrogels 326
Introduction 326
Inherently Conductive Electroactive Polymers [28] 327
Hydrogels [37] 330
Electroconductive Hydrogels 332
Synthesis of Electroconductive Hydrogels 333
Summary 340
References 340
Self-assembled Nanogel Engineering 345
Introduction 345
Self-Assembled Polysaccharide Nanogels 345
Stimuli-Responsive Self-Assembled Nanogels 347
Thermoresponsive Nanogels 348
Dual Stimuli (Heat-Redox)-Responsive Nanogels 349
Photoresponsive Nanogels 350
Biomedical Applications of Polysaccharide Nanogels 351
Design and Function of Nanogel-Based Hydrogels Materials 352
Hybrid gels Crosslinked by Polymerizable Nanogels 352
Rapid Shrinking Hydrogels Using Nanogel Crosslinker 353
Biodegradable Nanogel-Crosslinked Hydrogels and Application in Regenerative Medicine 353
Summary 354
References 354
Engineered High Swelling Hydrogels 357
Introduction 357
Engineered Hydrogels 358
Purity of HSHs 364
Hydrogels Characterization 366
Hydrogels Stability 370
Engineered HSH Polymers 371
Summary 375
References 375
Superabsorbent Hydrogels 381
Introduction 381
Hydrogels Swelling 382
Mechanism of hydrogels Swelling 384
The Effect of Neutralization and Acidity on the Swelling Capacity of Polycarbonic Acids 386
Donnan\u2019s Equilibrium and Potential in a hydrogels Solution System 386
Effect of Concentration Redistribution 390
Kinetics of Hydrogels Swelling 393
Summary 396
References 396
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