Landscape ecology : concepts, methods, and applications /

Acknowledgments p. vii
Introduction
Definition of a Discipline p. 3
Emergence of Landscape Ecology in the History of Ecology p. 3
History of ecology from its origin to the 1970s p. 3
Autecology p. 3
Synecology p. 4
Ecology of ecosystems p. 4
The emergence of landscape ecology p. 6
The first developments of landscape ecology: ecological mapping p. 6
Example of ecological mapping: Ducruc's inventory of natural resources p. 7
The geosystem p. 8
Environmental questions related to landscape transformation p. 9
Consequences of forest fragmentation in the United States p. 9
Changes in land use in Europe p. 9
Response of governments and the scientific community p. 11
The emergence of landscape ecology p. 12
Recognition of Heterogeneity in Ecological Systems p. 13
Heterogeneity depends on the nature of elements and scale on which the system is represented p. 13
Heterogeneity is a factor of organization of ecological systems p. 15
Heterogeneity is both spatial and temporal p. 16
New methods to account for heterogeneity p. 16
Taking Human Activities into Account in Ecological Systems p. 18
Genesis of agrarian landscapes: example of hedged farms in western France p. 18
The existing landscape structure is the result of past dynamics p. 20
Human activities are the main factor of evolution of landscapes on the global level p. 23
Explicit Accounting for Space and Time p. 24
Spatially explicit representation of ecological systems p. 24
Taking time into account in the analysis of ecological processes p. 27
Historical information needed to understand evolutionary mechanisms of "natural" systems and their management p. 28
Present organization may reflect past environmental conditions: ecological systems may slowly adapt to environmental changes p. 29
Knowledge of the initial state is fundamental to predicting the dynamics of a landscape p. 30
Landscape Ecology is Based on Scientific Theories Linked to Ecology and Related Disciplines p. 30
Hierarchy theory p. 31
Theories of physics of complex systems: percolation, fractal geometry p. 33
Theory of chaos p. 33
Percolation theory p. 34
Fractal geometry p. 35
Island biogeography theory p. 36
Theory of disturbances p. 37
Landscape Ecology: Definition of a Multidisciplinary Approach p. 40
Landscape as Understood by the Ecologist p. 40
Landscape, a central concept of many disciplines p. 41
Definitions p. 43
The scale of the landscape p. 43
Landscape Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Approach p. 45
Integration of the history of environment and societies: contribution of geomorphology, paleo-ecology and history p. 46
Major steps in the establishment of a study site p. 47
End of the Quaternary p. 48
Historical period p. 48
Present state of the site p. 49
Stages of human occupation of the marshes p. 51
Conclusion p. 53
Role of techniques implemented in land use: input of agronomy and anthropology p. 53
The agronomist's approach p. 54
The anthropologist's and the ethnologist's approach p. 55
The concept of cultural landscape p. 56
Recognition of past and recent landscape structures: contribution of geography p. 57
Ecological functions p. 58
Landscape Ecology: Application of Results of Fundamental Research to Conservation Biology and Land Management p. 60
Landscape ecology and landscape management p. 61
Application to land management p. 62
Applications in nature conservation p. 62
Landscape Structure and Dynamics
Analysis of Spatial Structures p. 67
Categories of Landscape Elements p. 69
From Sample Plots in a Wood to Woods in a Landscape p. 71
Typology of Patches and Corridors p. 73
Basic Concepts for Quantitative Approaches p. 76
Size of patches and fragmentation p. 76
Spatial relationships between patches: connectivity and connectedness p. 77
The entire mosaic: heterogeneity p. 78
Concepts of scale and hierarchy p. 80
Measurement of Heterogeneity p. 82
Formula p. 83
Properties p. 84
Fragmentation p. 87
Global structural approach p. 88
Fragmentation and available habitat: analytical approach p. 92
Characterization of pixels and their context p. 94
Conclusion p. 95
Connectedness p. 97
The corridor network p. 97
Effect of presence of wooded corridors on connectivity between groves p. 99
Analysis of connectivity by search for most permeable zones p. 100
Variation of connectivity over time in an agricultural zone p. 102
Conclusion: the many facets of connectivity and connectedness p. 105
Return to Scale Dependence: Contribution of Fractal Geometry p. 105
What is a fractal object? p. 105
Methods of measurement p. 107
Examples of fractals of landscape elements p. 109
Fractal dimension of resources p. 111
Fractal domains p. 113
Conclusion p. 114
Elements of Geostatistics p. 114
Typologies of Landscape Structures p. 115
Basic data p. 116
Methods p. 117
Results p. 118
Conclusion p. 121
General Conclusion p. 122
The Dynamics of Landscapes p. 124
Questions of Organization and Dynamics of Landscapes Stemming from Observation p. 126
Changes in Land Use on the Global Scale p. 126
Regional Approaches to Changes in Land Cover: Variations Depending on Modes of Measurement p. 128
Evolution of land cover in France in the 20th century: a variety of situations p. 128
Evaluation of evolution of land cover in western France: methodological assay p. 131
Statistical data p. 131
Representation of global trajectories of changes p. 131
Conclusion p. 136
Local Approaches to Changes in Land Cover: Importance of Spatialization p. 137
Evolution of a terrace landscape in the Mediterranean region p. 137
Basic data p. 137
Evolutions p. 137
Conclusion p. 141
Evolution of a bocage landscape in Lalleu (Ille-et-Vilaine) p. 142
The study site p. 142
Analyses and results p. 142
Conclusion p. 149
Evolution of a rice field landscape in subtropical China p. 150
Dynamics of Valley Landscapes: The Water Course and Its Corridors p. 152
Dynamics of Non-Anthropogenic Landscapes p. 156
Land Cover and Evolving Landscapes, a General Phenomenon p. 161
Organization of Landscapes p. 163
Categories of Models p. 164
The Concept of Organization p. 167
Spatial organization of the landscape mosaic p. 167
Organization of a landscape mosaic vis-a-vis other factors p. 167
Basis for measures of information p. 168
Various types of information p. 169
Example p. 170
Ecological Organization of Landscapes p. 172
Spatial organization of farming systems in Ottawa (Canada) p. 172
Basic data p. 173
Results p. 174
Concept of landscape niche p. 176
Organization of agricultural landscape in the Pays d'Auge (Normandy, France) p. 178
Factors of landscape organization along a transect p. 178
Factors of landscape organization p. 180
From Farming Systems to Landscape Diversity p. 183
From farms to a diversity of landscape elements p. 183
Diversity of permanent grasslands in the Pays d'Auge, Normandy p. 184
Diversity of field boundaries in the Armorican bocage farm land p. 187
Landscape elements as parts of farming systems p. 193
Organization of land use in an Armorican bocage farm land p. 193
General principles of land use patterns in a livestock farm p. 193
Case study p. 195
General Approach of Dynamics and Organization of Agrarian Landscapes p. 202
Landscape Dynamics and (Re)organization: Multi-Scale and Multidisciplinary Approach p. 206
Ecological Processes within Landscapes
The Functioning of Populations at the Landscape Level p. 215
Patch Theory and Functioning of Metapopulations p. 216
The concept of metapopulation p. 216
Definitions p. 216
Conceptual models p. 218
The Boorman and Levitt model p. 218
The source-sink model p. 219
Metapopulations in a state of non-equilibrium p. 219
Metapopulations and landscape p. 220
Patch size p. 220
Isolation of patches p. 220
Ecotones and their configuration p. 222
The role of corridors p. 223
Gene flows p. 226
Multi-Habitat Species p. 226
Daily movement between landscape elements p. 228
Seasonal movements between landscape elements p. 230
Functional units p. 232
Movement in Landscapes p. 232
A hierarchical approach to movements p. 235
Quantification of movement: intensity and nature p. 236
Connectivity or permeability of landscapes p. 236
The spatial arrangement of patches and percolation theory p. 237
Permeability of land between patches of favourable habitat (matrix) p. 239
Corridors p. 241
Structure of the corridor p. 242
Connectivity of the network p. 244
Corridors and the functioning of metapopulations p. 246
Landscape Dynamics and the Functioning of Populations p. 247
Delay in extinction p. 247
Delay in colonization p. 250
Population Models Used in Landscape Ecology p. 253
Objectives of models p. 255
Spatially explicit models of population dynamics p. 255
Models of spatial distribution of populations or individuals p. 255
Models based on functional properties of the landscape p. 256
Taking space into account p. 256
Interspecific Relationships and Biodiversity in Landscapes p. 259
Interspecific Relationships p. 259
Competition between species p. 259
Predation p. 260
Pollination: long-term interactions p. 263
Biodiversity p. 264
Biodiversity in the agrarian landscapes p. 266
Ecological consequences of the intensification of agriculture p. 266
Intensification of agriculture and species diversity p. 267
Plant communities in landscapes of intensive agriculture p. 271
Biodiversity and forest fragmentation p. 273
Ecological consequences of land abandonment p. 274
Abandonment and fires p. 274
The effects of abandonment vary according to the taxa considered p. 275
Biodiversity in "natural" landscapes p. 277
Biodiversity and fire p. 278
Geochemical Flows in Landscapes p. 281
Buffer Zones p. 282
Principle of buffer zones p. 282
Retention of nitrogen p. 282
Other buffer effects p. 283
Erosion Phenomena and Landscape Structure p. 285
Transfers in Watersheds p. 287
Calculation of mineral balances p. 287
Structural approach p. 288
Functional approaches p. 290
Conclusion p. 292
Applications to Landscape Management
Application of Landscape Ecology Concepts to Landscape Management and Design p. 295
The Corridor Concept Applied to Development p. 296
Form and nature of corridors p. 298
The European network of corridors and the pan-European strategy p. 299
Econet p. 299
The pan-European strategy for maintenance of biological and landscape diversity p. 301
An example of a national network: the Netherlands p. 301
Corridors between national parks or reserves: a tool for the conservation of species p. 303
Examples of general principles for establishment of corridors p. 304
Some corridors established for fauna p. 305
The greenways movement p. 307
A brief history p. 307
Definition and diversity of greenways p. 309
Examples p. 309
Considering Landscape Ecology Concepts in Establishing Transportation Infrastructures p. 311
Impacts of a linear infrastructure p. 311
Modification of habitats p. 311
Emissions and source effect p. 312
Sink effects p. 312
Isolation p. 313
Connection p. 314
Measures of reduction and compensation p. 314
Choice of layout p. 314
Compensatory measures: reduction of barrier effect and mortality p. 316
The Development of Rural Landscapes p. 317
Principles of ecological engineering p. 317
Structures and mechanisms relating to biodiversity p. 318
Structures and mechanisms relating to water quality p. 318
Implementation of new modes of management p. 319
Landscape law: aesthetics and ecological functioning p. 321
References p. 324
Glossary p. 353
Index p. 357