心理学与生活:第18版·英文版

PREFACE
1　PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE　3
WHAT MAKES PSYCHOLOGY UNIQUE？　4
　Definitions　4
　The Goals of Psychology　5
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN PSYCHOLOGY HELP FIND ME A CAREER？　8
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY　9
　Psychology’s Historical Foundations　9
　Current Psychological Perspectives　11
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DO FRIENDSHIPS END？　16
WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO　17
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK　19
　Study Strategies　19
　Study Techniques　20
　Special Features　20
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　21
KEY TERMS　21
2　RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY　25
THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH　26
　Observer Biases and Operational Definitions　27
　Experimental Methods：Alternative Explanations and the Need for Controls　30
　Correlational Methods　33
　Subliminal Influence？　34
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN SURVEY RESEARCH AFFECT YOUR ATTITUDES？ 36
PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT　37
　Achieving Reliability and Validity　37
　Self-Report Measures　37
　Behavioral Measures and Observations　38
ETHICAL ISSUES IN HUMAN AND ANIMAL RESEARCH　40
　Informed Consent　40
　Risk/Gain Assessment　41
　Intentional Deception　41
　Debriefing　41
　Issues in Animal Research　41
BECOMING A WISER RESEARCH CONSUMER　42
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN YOU EVALUATE PSYCHOLOGICAL INFORMATION ON THE WEB？　43
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　44
KEY TERMS　44
STATISTICAL SUPPLEMENT　46
UNDERSTANDING STATISTICS：ANALYZING DATA AND FORMING CONCLUSIONS　46
ANALYZING THE DATA　47
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS　48
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS　51
BECOMING A WISE CONSUMER OF STATISTICS　53
KEY TERMS　53
3　THE BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY BASES OF BEHAVIOR　55
HEREDITY AND BEHAVIOR　56
　Evolution and Natural Selection　57
　Variation in the Human Genotype　59
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ACTION　63
　The Neuron　63
　Action Potentials　65
　Synaptic Transmission　67
　Neurotransmitters and Their Functions　68
BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR　70
　Eavesdropping on the Brain　70
　The Nervous System　74
　Brain Structures and Their Functions　75
　Hemispheric Lateralization　81
　The Endocrine System　84
　Plasticity and Neurogenesis：Our Changing Brains　85
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHAT DOES “IT’S GENETIC” MEAN？　71
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DOES MUSIC HAVE AN IMPACT ON HOW YOU FEEL？　87
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　88
KEY TERMS　89
4　SENSATION AND PERCEPTION　93
SENSING, ORGANIZING, IDENTIFYING, AND RECOGNIZING　94
　The Proximal and Distal Stimuli　95
　Reality, Ambiguity, and Illusions　97
SENSORY KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD　99
　Psychophysics　99
　From Physical Events to Mental Events　102
THE VISUAL SYSTEM 103
　The Human Eye　103
　The Pupil and the Lens　103
　The Retina　104
　Processes in the Brain　105
　Seeing Color　108
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN TECHNOLOGY RESTORE SIGHT？　108
HEARING　112
　The Physics of Sound　112
　Psychological Dimensions of Sound　112
　The Physiology of Hearing　113
YOUR OTHER SENSES　117
　Smell　117
　Taste　117
　Touch and Skin Senses　118
　The Vestibular and Kinesthetic Senses　119
　Pain　120
ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES IN PERCEPTION　121
　Attentional Processes　121
　Principles of Perceptual Grouping　124
　Spatial and Temporal Integration　125
　Motion Perception　126
　Depth Perception　126
　Perceptual Constancies　129
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY IS EATING“HOT”FOOD PAINFUL？　122
IDENTIFICATION AND RECOGNITION PROCESS　131
　Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes　131
　The Influence of Contexts and Expectations　133
　Final Lessons　134
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　134
KEY TERMS　135
5　MIND, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND ALTERNATE STATES　139
THE CONTENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS　140
　Awareness and Consciousness　140
　Studying the Contents of Consciousness　142
THE FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS　143
　The Uses of Consciousness　143
　Studying the Functions of Consciousness　144
SLEEP AND DREAMS　145
　Circadian Rhythms　145
　The Sleep Cycle　146
　Why Sleep　148
　Sleep Disorders　148
　Dreams：Theater of the Mind　150
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：DO YOU GET ENOUGH SLEEP？　150
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS　152
　Lucid Dreaming　153
　Hypnosis　153
　Meditation　155
　Religious Ecstasy　156
MIND-ALTERING DRUGS　157
　Dependence and Addiction　157
　Varieties of Psychoactive Drugs　158
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DOES ECSTASY HARM THE BRAIN？　160
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　162
KEY TERMS　162
6　LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS　165
THE STUDY OF LEARNING　166
　What Is Learning？　166
　Behaviorism and Behavior Analysis　167
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING：LEARNING PREDICTABLE SIGNALS　168
　Pavlov’s Surprising Observation　168
　Processes of Conditioning　170
　Focus on Acquisition　172
　Applications of Classical Conditioning　174
OPERANT CONDITIONING：LEARNING ABOUT CONSEQUENCES　176
　The Law of Effect　176
　Experimental Analysis of Behavior　178
　Reinforcement Contingencies　179
　Properties of Reinforcers　182
　Schedules of Reinforcement　183
　Shaping　186
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AFFECT CANCER TREATMENT？　177
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：TO SPANK OR NOT TO SPANK　184
BIOLOGY AND LEARNING　187
　Instinctual Drift　187
　Taste-Aversion Learning　188
COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LEARNING　190
　Animal Cognition　190
　Observational Learning　192
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　195
KEY TERMS　195
7　MEMORY　199
WHAT IS MEMORY？　200
　Types of Memories　200
　An Overview of Memory Processes　202
MEMORY USE FOR THE SHORT-TERM　203
　Iconic Memory　204
　Short-Term Memory　205
　Working Memory　207
LONG-TERM MEMORY：ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL　209
　Retrieval Cues　209
　Context and Encoding　210
　The Processes of Encoding and Retrieval　213
　Why We Forget　215
　Improving Memory for Unstructured Information　217
　Metamemory　218
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN MEMORY RESEARCH HELP YOU PREPARE FOR EXAMS？　219
STRUCTURES IN LONG-TERM MEMORY　220
　Memory Structures　220
　Remembering as a Reconstructive Process　224
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MEMORY　227
　Searching for the Engram　227
　Amnesia　228
　Brain Imaging　229
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DOES ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AFFECT MEMORY？　227
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　231
KEY TERMS　232
8　COGNITIVE PROCESSES　235
STUDYING COGNITION　237
　Discovering the Processes of Mind　237
　Mental Processes and Mental Resources　237
LANGUAGE USE　240
　Language Production　240
　Language Understanding　243
　Language and Evolution　247
　Language,Thought,and Culture　248
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY AND HOW DO PEOPLE LIE？　249
VISUAL COGNITION　250
　Using Visual Representations　250
　Combining Verbal and Visual Representations　252
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING　255
　Problem Solving　255
　Deductive Reasoning　257
　Inductive Reasoning　260
JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING　262
　Heuristics and Judgment　262
　The Psychology of Decision Making　265
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN POLITICAL EXPERTS PREDICT THE FUTURE?　269
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　270
KEY TERMS　270
9　INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT　273
WHAT IS ASSESSMENT？　274
　History of Assessment　274
　Basic Features of Formal Assessment　275
INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT　278
　The Origins of Intelligence Testing　278
　IQ Tests　278
　Extremes of Intelligence　280
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE　282
　Psychometric Theories of Intelligence　282
　Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence　284
　Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and Emotional Intelligence　285
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN YOU TRUST ASSESSMENT ON THE WEB？　283
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：DO THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE MATTER？　287
THE POLITICS OF INTELLIGENCE　287
　The History of Group Comparisons　288
　Heredity and IQ　289
　Environments and IQ　291
　Culture and the Validity of IQ Tests　293
CREATIVITY　295
　Assessing Creativity and the Link to Intelligence　295
　Extremes of Creativity　295
ASSESSMENT AND SOCIETY　297
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　299
KEY TERMS　299
10　HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN　303
STUDYING DEVELOPMENT　304
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN　306
　Prenatal and Childhood Development　306
　Physical Development in Adolescence　310
　Physical Changes in Adulthood　311
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN　312
　Piaget’s Insights Into Mental Development　312
　Contemporary Perspectives on Early Cognitive Development　314
　Cognitive Development in Adulthood　318
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WILL YOUR BRAIN WORK DIFFERENTLY AS YOU AGE？　320
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE　321
　Perceiving Speech and Perceiving Words　321
　Learning Word Meanings　322
　Acquiring Grammar　323
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN　324
　Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages　325
　Social Development in Childhood　326
　Social Development in Adolescence　331
　Social Development in Adulthood　333
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES DAY CARE AFFECT CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT？330
SEX AND GENDER DIFFERENCES　336
　Sex Differences　336
　Gender Identity and Gender Roles　337
MORAL DEVELOPMENT　338
　Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning　338
　Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning　340
LEARNING TO AGE SUCCESSFULLY　341
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　342
KEY TERMS　343
11　MOTIVATION　347
UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION　348
　Functions of Motivational Concepts　348
　Sources of Motivation　349
　A Hierarchy of Needs　352
EATING　353
　The Physiology of Eating 354
　The Psychology of Eating　355
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES GENETICS CONTRIBUTE TO OBESITY？　356
SEXUAL BEHAVIORS　360
　Nonhuman Sexual Behaviors　360
　Human Sexual Arousal and Response　362
　The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors　363
　Sexual Norms　364
　Homosexuality　366
MOTIVATION FOR PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT　370
　Need for Achievement　368
　Attributions for Success and Failure　369
　Work and Organizational Psychology　371
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES MOTIVATION AFFECT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT·373
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　374
KEY TERMS　374
12　EMOTION, STRESS, AND HEALTH　377
EMOTIONS　378
　Basic Emotions and Culture　378
　Theories of Emotion　381
　Functions of Emotions　385
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE HAPPIER THAN OTHERS？　388
STRESS OF LIVING　389
　Physiological Stress Reactions　389
　Psychological Stress Reactions　392
　Coping with Stress　397
　Positive Effects of Stress　401
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY　402
　The Biopsychosocial Model of Health　403
　Health Promotion　403
　Treatment　406
　Personality and Health　409
　Job Burnout and the Health-Care System　410
　A Toast to Your Health　411
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY HELP YOU BE A HEALTHY PERSON BY 2010？　407
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　413
KEY TERMS　413
13　UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY　417
TYPE AND TRAIT PERSONALITY THEORIES　418
　Categorizing by Types　418
　Describing with Traits　419
　Traits and Heritability　423
　Do Traits Predict Behaviors？　423
　Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories　425
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES　425
　Freudian Psychoanalysis　425
　Evaluation of Freudian Theory　429
　Extending Psychodynamic Theories　430
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE SHY？　426
HUMANISTIC THEORIES　432
　Features of Humanistic Theories　432
　Evaluation of Humanistic Theories　433
SOCIAL-LEARNING AND COGNITIVE THEORIES　434
　Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory　435
　Bandura’s Cognitive Social-Learning Theory　436
　Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory　438
　Evaluation of Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories　438
SELF THEORIES　439
　Dynamic Aspects of Self-Concepts　439
　Self-Esteem and Self-Presentation　440
　The Cultural Construction of Self　441
　Evaluation of Self Theories　442
COMPARING PERSONALITY THEORIES　443
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHO ARE YOU ON THE INTERNET？　443
ASSESSING PERSONALITY　444
　Objective Tests　444
　Projective Tests　446
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　448
KEY TERMS　448
14　PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS　451
THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS　452
　Deciding What Is Abnormal　452
　The Problem of Objectivity　454
　Classifying Psychological Disorders　454
　The Etiology of Psychopathology　457
ANXIETY DISORDERS　459
　Generalized Anxiety Disorder　459
　Panic Disorder　459
　Phobias　460
　Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder　460
　Posttraumatic Stress Disorder　461
　Causes of Anxiety Disorders　462
MOOD DISORDERS　464
　Major Depressive Disorder　464
　Bipolar Disorder　465
　Causes of Mood Disorders　465
　Gender Differences in Depression　467
　Suicide　468
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN WE PINPOINT INTERACTIONS OF NATURE AND NURTURE？　469
PERSONALITY DISORDERS　470
　Borderline Personality Disorder　470
　Antisocial Personality Disorder　471
SOMATOFORM AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS　472
　Somatoform Disorders　472
　Dissociative Disorders　473
SCHIZOPHRENIC DISORDERS　474
　Major Types of Schizophrenia　475
　Causes of Schizophrenia　476
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：IS “INSANITY” REALLY A DEFENSE？　480
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS OF CHILDHOOD　480
　Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder　481
　Autistic Disorder　481
THE STIGMA OF MENTAL ILLNESS　482
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　483
KEY TERMS　484
15　THERAPIES FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS　487
THE THERAPEUTIC CONTEXT　488
　Goals and Major Therapies　488
　Therapists and Therapeutic Settings　489
　Historical Perspectives on Institutional Treatment　490
PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES　491
　Freudian Psychoanalysis　491
　Later Psychodynamic Therapies　493
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：ARE LIVES HAUNTED BY REPRESSED MEMORIES?　494
BEHAVIOR THERAPIES　494
　Counterconditioning　495
　Contingency Management　496
　Social-Learning Therapy　498
　Generalization Techniques　499
COGNITIVE THERAPIES　501
　Changing False Beliefs　501
　Cognitive Behavioral Therapy　502
HUMANISTIC THERAPIES　502
　Client-Centered Therapy　503
　Gestalt Therapy　503
GROUP THERAPIES　504
　Couple and Family Therapy　504
　Community Support Groups　505
BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES　506
　Drug Therapy　506
　Psychosurgery　508
　EC and rTMS　509
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DOES THERAPY AFFECT BRAIN ACTIVITY?　510
TREATMENT EVALUATION AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES　511
　Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness　511
　Prevention Strategies　512
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　513
KEY TERMS　514
16　SOCIAL COGNITION AND RELATIONSHIPS　517
CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL REALITY　518
　The Origins of Attribution Theory　519
　The Fundamental Attribution Error　519
　Self-Serving Biases　520
　Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies　521
　Behaviors That Confirm Expectations　522
ATTITUDES, ATTITUDE CHANGE, AND ACTION 524
　Attitudes and Behaviors　524
　Processes of Persuasion　525
　Persuasion by Your Own Actions　527
　Compliance　529
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DO LATE-NIGHT TV ADS REALLY WORK？　532
PREJUDICE　531
　Origins of Prejudice　531
　Effects of Stereotypes　533
　Reversing Prejudice　534
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS　536
　Liking　536
　Loving　537
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN LASTING RELATIONSHIPS FORM ON THE INTERNET?　540
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　541
KEY TERMS　541
17　SOCIAL PROCESSES, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE　545
THE POWER OF THE SITUATION　546
　Roles and Rules　546
　Social Norms　548
　Conformity　549
　Decision Making in Groups　552
　Situational Power：Candid Camera Revelations　552
ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR　553
　The Roots of Altruism　553
　Motives for Prosocial Behavior　555
　The Effects of the Situation of Prosocial Behavior　556
CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN YOU GET PEOPLE TO VOLUNTEER?　558
AGGRESSION　559
　Evolutionary Perspectives　559
　Individual Differences　560
　Situational Influences　561
　Cultural Constraints　563
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT AND PEACE　566
　Obedience to Authority　566
　The Psychology of Genocide and War　569
　Peace Psychology　572
A PERSONAL ENDNOTE　574
PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW MIGHT RECONCILIATION BE POSSIBLE?　575
RECAPPING MAIN POINTS　576
KEY TERMS　576
ANSWER APPENDIX　A-1
GLOSSARY　G-1
REFERENCES　R-1
NAME INDEX　N-1
SUBJECT INDEX　S-1
CREDITS　C-1