科学技术研究报告.0577,章古台沙地樟子松、油松造林技术的研究

Table Of Contents:
About the Authors ix
Preface xi
PART I Getting Acquainted with Economics 1(90)

What is Economics 3(14)

Ideas for Beyond the Final Exam 4(5)

How Much Does It Really Cost 4(1)

Attempts to Repeal the Laws of Supply and Demand---The Market Strikes Back 4(1)

The Surprising Principle of Comparative Advantage 5(1)

Trade Is a Win-Win Situation 5(1)

The Importance of Thinking at the Margin 6(1)

Externalities: A Shortcoming of the Market Cured by Market Methods 6(1)

Why the Costs of Education and Medical Care Keep Growing 6(1)

The Trade-off between Efficiency and Equality 7(1)

The Short-Run Trade-off between Inflation and Unemployment 8(1)

Inflation Distorts Measurements 8(1)

Why Was It Important to Reduce the Budget Deficit 8(1)

Productivity Growth Is (Almost) Everything in the Long Run 9(1)

Epilogue 9(1)

Inside the Economist's Tool Kit 9(6)

Economics as a Discipline 9(1)

The Need for Abstraction 10(2)

The Role of Economic Theory 12(1)

What Is an Economic Model 13(1)

Reasons for Disagreements: Imperfect Information and Value Judgments 14(1)

Common Sense: Useful but Dangerous 15(1)

Summary 15(1)

Key Terms 16(1)

Questions for Review 16(1)

The Use and Misuse of Graphs 17(14)

Graphs Used in Economic Analysis 18(1)

What's Wrong With This Graph 18(5)

Two-Variable Diagrams 18(2)

The Definition and Measurement of Slope 20(2)

Rays through the Origin and 45° Lines 22(1)

Squeezing Three Dimensions into Two: Contour Maps 22(1)

Perils in the Interpretation of Graphs 23(4)

The Interpretation of Growth Trends 24(1)

Distorting Trends by Choice of the Time Period 25(2)

Dangers of Omitting the Origin: The Puzzle Solved 27(3)

Unreliability of Steepness and Choice of Units 28(2)

Summary 30(1)

Key Terms 30(1)

Questions for Review 30(1)

The Economy: Myth and Reality 31(20)

The American Economy: A Thumbnail Sketch 32(5)

A Private Enterprise Economy 32(2)

A Relatively ``Closed'' Economy 34(1)

A Growing Economy ... but with Inflation 34(2)

Bumps along the Growth Path: Recessions 36(1)

The Inputs: Labor and Capital 37(4)

The American Workforce: Who Is in It 38(1)

The American Workforce: What It Does 38(2)

The American Workforce: What It Earns 40(1)

Capital and Its Earnings 41(1)

The Outputs: What Does America Produce 41(1)

The Central Role of Business Firms 42(1)

Measuring Economic Progress 43(2)

What's Missing from the Picture? Government 45(4)

The Government as Referee 46(1)

The Government as Business Regulator 46(1)

Government Expenditures 46(1)

Taxes in America 47(1)

The Government as Redistributor 48(1)

Conclusion: The Mixed Economy 49(1)

Summary 49(1)

Key Terms 50(1)

Questions for Review 50(1)

Scarcity and Choice: The Economic Problem 51(16)

What to do with the Budget Surplus 52(1)

Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost 52(2)

Opportunity Cost and Money Cost 53(1)

Scarcity and Choice for a Single Firm 54(2)

The Production Possibilities Frontier 54(1)

The Principle of Increasing Costs 55(1)

Scarcity and Choice for the Entire Society 56(1)

Scarcity and Choice Elsewhere in the Economy 56(1)

Allocating the Budget Surplus 57(2)

Application: Economic Growth in the United States and the Asian ``Tigers'' 57(2)

The Concept of Efficiency 59(1)

The Three Coordination Tasks of any Economy 60(1)

Specialization Fosters Efficient Resource Allocation 60(2)

The Wonders of the Division of Labor 60(1)

The Amazing Principle of Comparative Advantage 61(1)

Specialization Leads to Exchange 62(1)

Markets, Prices, and the Three Coordination Tasks 63(1)

Last Word: Don't Confuse Ends with Means 64(1)

Summary 64(1)

Key Terms 65(1)

Questions for Review 65(2)

Supply and Demand: An Initial Look 67(24)

What in the World Happened to those Asian Currencies 68(1)

The Invisible Hand 68(2)

Demand and Quantity Demanded 70(3)

The Demand Schedule 70(1)

The Demand Curve 71(1)

Shifts of the Demand Curve 71(2)

Supply and Quantity Supplied 73(4)

The Supply Schedule and the Supply Curve 73(2)

Shifts of the Supply Curve 75(2)

Supply and Demand Equilibrium 77(3)

The Law of Supply and Demand 79(1)

Effects of Demand Shifts on Supply-Demand Equilibrium 79(1)

Application: The Fall of the Rupiah 80(2)

Supply Shifts and Supply-Demand Equilibrium 80(1)

Application: Who Really Pays That Tax 81(1)

Fighting the Invisible Hand: The Market Fights Back 82(5)

Restraining the Market Mechanism: Price Ceilings 83(1)

Case Study: Rent Controls in New York City 83(2)

Restraining the Market Mechanism: Price Floors 85(1)

Case Study: Sugar Price Supports 85(1)

A Can of Worms 86(1)

A Simple but Powerful Lesson 87(1)

Summary 87(1)

Key Terms 88(1)

Questions for Review 88(3)
PART II The Macroeconomy: Aggregate Supply and Demand 91(120)

The Realm of Macroeconomics 93(20)

How did we Grow so Fast 94(1)

Drawing a Line Between Macroeconomics and Microeconomics 94(2)

Aggregation and Macroeconomics 94(1)

Foundations of Aggregation 95(1)

The Line of Demarcation Revisited 95(1)

Supply and Demand Reinterpreted Through a Macroeconomic Lens 96(1)

A Quick Review 96(1)

Moving to Macroeconomic Aggregates 96(1)

Inflation 97(1)

Recession and Unemployment 97(1)

Economic Growth 97(1)

Gross Domestic Product 97(4)

Money as the Measuring Rod: Real versus Nominal GDP 98(1)

What Gets Counted in GDP 98(1)

Limitations of the GDP: What GDP Is Not 99(2)

The Economy on a Roller Coaster 101(7)

Growth, But with Fluctuations 101(2)

Inflation and Deflation 103(1)

The Great Depression 103(2)

From World War II to 1973 105(1)

The Great Stagflation, 1973--1980 106(1)

Reaganomics and Its Aftermath 106(1)

Clintonomics: Deficit Reduction and ``The Best Economy in 30 Years'' 107(1)

The Problem of Macroeconomic Stabilization: A Sneak Preview 108(2)

Combating Unemployment 109(1)

Combating Inflation 109(1)

Does It Really Work 109(1)

Summary 110(1)

Key Terms 111(1)

Questions for Review 111(2)

The Goals of Macroeconomic Policy 113(28)

The Goal Of Economic Growth 114(1)

Is More Growth Always Better 114(1)

The Capacity to Produce: Potential GDP 115(1)

Alternative Measures of Economic Growth 116(1)

The U.S. Productivity Slowdown: Is America on the Decline 117(1)

Explanations for the Productivity Slowdown 118(1)

Lagging Investment 118(1)

High Energy Prices 118(1)

Workforce Skills 119(1)

A Technological Slowdown 119(1)

The Costs Of Unemployment 119(2)

The Human Costs of High Unemployment 121(1)

Counting the Unemployed: The Official Statistics 122(1)

Types of Unemployment 123(1)

How Much Employment is ``Full Employment'' 124(1)

Unemployment Insurance: The Invaluable Cushion 124(2)

The Costs Of Inflation 126(1)

Inflation: The Myth and the Reality 126(3)

Inflation and Real Wages 126(1)

The Illusion of Traditional ``Fair'' Prices 127(1)

The Importance of Relative Prices 127(2)

Inflation as a Redistributor of Income and Wealth 129(1)

Real Versus Nominal Interest Rates 129(1)

Inflation Distorts Measurements 130(2)

Confusing Real and Nominal Interest Rates 131(1)

Public Utility Regulation 131(1)

The Malfunctioning Tax System 131(1)

Usury Laws 131(1)

Other Costs of Inflation 132(1)

The Costs of Low Versus High Inflation 132(1)

Low Inflation Does not Necessarily Lead to High Inflation 133(2)

Summary 135(1)

Key Terms 135(1)

Questions for Review 135(1)

How Statisticians Measure Inflation 136(1)

Index Numbers for Inflation 136(1)

The Consumer Price Index 136(1)

How to Use a Price Index to ``Deflate'' Monetary Figures 137(1)

The GDP Deflator 138(1)

Summary 138(1)

Key Terms 138(1)

Questions for Review 139(2)

Income and Spending: The Powerful Consumer 141(20)

Demand Management and the Ornery Consumer 142(1)

Aggregate Demand, Domestic Product, and National Income 143(1)

The Circular Flow of Spending, Production, and Income 144(2)

Consumer Spending and Income: The Important Relationship 146(2)

The Consumption Function and the Marginal Propensity to Consume 148(2)

Movements Along Versus Shifts of the Consumption Function 150(2)

Other Determinants of Consumer Spending 150(2)

Why Tax Policy Failed in 1975 152(1)

How Predictable is Consumer Behavior 153(1)

Summary 154(1)

Key Terms 154(1)

Questions to Review 155(1)

National Income Accounting 155(1)

Defining GDP: Exceptions to the Rules 155(1)

GDP as the Sum of Final Goods and Services 156(1)

GDP as the Sum of All Factor Payments 156(2)

GDP as the Sum of Values Added 158(1)

Summary 159(1)

Key Terms 160(1)

Questions for Review 160(1)

Demand-Side Equilibrium: Unemployment or Inflation 161(18)

Why Does the Market Permit Unemployment 162(1)

The Extreme Variability of Investment 163(2)

Business Confidence and Expectations about the Future 163(1)

The Level and Growth of Demand 164(1)

Technical Change and Product Innovation 164(1)

The Real Rate of Interest 164(1)

Tax Provisions 165(1)

The Determinants of Net Exports 165(1)

National Incomes 165(1)

Relative Prices and Exchange Rates 166(1)

Equilibrium on the Demand Side of the Economy 166(5)

The Meaning of Equilibrium GDP 167(1)

Constructing the Expenditure Schedule 168(2)

The Mechanics of Income Determination 170(1)

The Aggregate Demand Curve 171(2)

Demand-Side Equilibrium and Full Employment 173(1)

The Coordination of Saving and Investment 174(2)

Summary 176(1)

Key Terms 177(1)

Questions for Review 177(1)

The Simple Algebra of Income Determination 177(1)

Questions for Review 178(1)

Changes on the Demand Side: Multiplier Analysis 179(16)

Would Cutting Taxes Work in Japan 180(1)

The Magic of the Multiplier 180(4)

Demystifying the Multiplier: How It Works 181(1)

Algebraic Statement of the Multiplier 182(2)

The Multiplier: A General Concept 184(2)

The Multiplier Effect of Consumer Spending 184(1)

Other Multipliers 185(1)

The Multiplier in Reverse 186(1)

The Paradox of Thrift 186(1)

Tax Cutting in Japan 187(1)

The Multiplier and the Aggregate Demand Curve 188(1)

Summary 189(1)

Key Terms 189(1)

Questions for Review 189(1)

The Simple Algebra of the Multiplier 190(1)

The Multiplier with Variable Imports 190(2)

Summary 192(1)

Questions for Review 193(2)

Supply-Side Equilibrium: Unemployment and Inflation 195(16)

How Could Inflation Fall While the Economy Boomed 196(1)

The Aggregate Supply Curve 196(3)

Why the Aggregate Supply Curve Slopes Upward 196(1)

Shifts of the Aggregate Supply Curve 197(2)

Equilibrium of Aggregate Demand and Supply 199(1)

Recessionary and Inflationary Gaps Revisited 200(2)

Adjusting to a Recessionary Gap: Deflation or Unemployment 202(1)

Does the Economy Have a Self-Correcting Mechanism 203(1)

An Example from Recent History: Disinflation in the 1990s 203(1)

Adjusting to an Inflationary Gap: Inflation 203(3)

Demand Inflation and Stagflation 204(1)

A Recent Example 205(1)

Stagflation from a Supply Shock 206(1)

Explaining the Roaring Nineties 206(1)

Inflation and the Multiplier 207(1)

A Role for Stabilization Policy 208(1)

Summary 209(1)

Key Terms 209(1)

Questions for Review 209(2)
PART III Fiscal and Monetary Policy 211(130)

Managing Aggregate Demand: Fiscal Policy 213(20)

How to Stimulate Japan's Economy 214(1)

Income Taxes and the Consumption Schedule 214(3)

The Multiplier Revisited 217(2)

Automatic Stabilizers 218(1)

Multipliers for Tax Policy 219(1)

The Japanese Economy 219(1)

Government Transfer Payments 220(1)

Planning Expansionary Fiscal Policy 220(2)

Planning Contractionary Fiscal Policy 222(1)

The Choice Between Spending Policy and Tax Policy 222(1)

Some Harsh Realities 223(1)

The Idea Behind Supply-Side Tax Cuts 224(1)

Some Files in the Ointment 225(2)

Toward an Assessment of Supply-Side Economics 226(1)

Two Sides to the Supply Side 227(1)

Summary 228(1)

Key Terms 228(1)

Questions for Review 228(1)

Algebraic Treatment of Fiscal Policy and Aggregate Demand 229(4)

Questions for Review 231(2)

Money and the Banking System 233(22)

What Caused the Biggest ``Bank Run'' in History 234(1)

The Nature of Money 235(3)

Barter versus Monetary Exchange 235(1)

The Conceptual Definition of Money 236(1)

What Serves as Money 236(2)

How the Quantity of Money is Measured 238(2)

M1 239(1)

M2 239(1)

Other Definitions of the Money Supply 240(1)

The Banking System 240(4)

How Banking Began 241(2)

Principles of Bank Management: Profits versus Safety 243(1)

Bank Regulation 244(1)

The Origins of the Money Supply 244(2)

How Bankers Keep Books 244(2)

Banks and Money Creation 246(5)

The Limits to Money Creation by a Single Bank 246(2)

Multiple Money Creation by a Series of Banks 248(2)

The Process in Reverse: Multiple Contractions of the Money Supply 250(1)

Why the Deposit Creation Formula is Oversimplified 251(1)

The Asian Bank Run Explained 252(1)

The Need for Monetary Policy 252(1)

Summary 253(1)

Key Terms 253(1)

Questions for Review 254(1)

Monetary Policy and the National Economy 255(20)

Just Why is Alan Greenspan so Important 256(1)

Money and Income: The Important Difference 257(1)

America's Central Bank: The Federal Reserve System 257(3)

Origins and Structure 257(1)

The Independence of the Fed 258(2)

Controlling the Money Supply: Open Market Operations 260(3)

Open Market Operations, Bond Prices, and Interest Rates 262(1)

Other Methods of Monetary Control 263(2)

Lending to Banks 264(1)

Changing Reserve Requirements 265(1)

Supply-Demand Analysis of the Money Market 265(3)

The Money Supply Mechanism 265(1)

The Demand for Money 266(1)

Equilibrium in the Money Market 267(1)

How Monetary Policy Works 268(1)

Investment and Interest Rates 269(1)

Monetary Policy and Total Expenditure 269(1)

Money and the Price Level in the Keynesian Model 270(2)

Application: Why the Aggregate Demand Curve Slopes Downward 271(1)

From Models to Policy Debates 272(1)

Summary 272(1)

Key Terms 273(1)

Questions for Review 273(2)

The Debate Over Monetary Policy 275(22)

Should we Forsake Stabilization Policy 276(1)

Velocity and the Quantity Theory of Money 276(5)

The Determinants of Velocity 278(2)

Monetarism: The Quantity Theory Modernized 280(1)

Fiscal Policy, Interest Rates, and Velocity 281(2)

Application: The Multiplier Formula Revisited 283(1)

Application: Deficit Reduction and Investment 283(1)

Debate: Should Stabilization Policy Rely on Fiscal or Monetary Policy 283(2)

Debate: Should the Fed Control the Money Supply or Control Interest Rates 285(3)

Two Imperfect Alternatives 286(1)

What Has the Fed Actually Done 286(2)

Debate: The Shape of the Aggregate Supply Curve 288(2)

Debate: Should the Government Intervene 290(2)

Lags and the Rules-versus-Discretion Debate 291(1)

Dimensions of the Rules-Versus-Discretion Debate 292(2)

How Fast Does the Economy's Self-Correcting Mechanism Work 292(1)

How Long Are the Lags in Stabilization Policy 292(1)

How Accurate Are Economic Forecasts 292(1)

The Size of Government 292(1)

Uncertainties Caused by Government Policy 293(1)

A Political Business Cycle 293(1)

What Should be Done 294(1)

Summary 294(1)

Key Terms 295(1)

Questions for Review 295(2)

Deficits, Monetary Policy, and Growth 297(22)

Are Smaller Deficits Good or Bad for Growth 298(1)

Should the Budget be Balanced 298(2)

The Importance of the Policy Mix 299(1)

Deficits and Debt: Terminology and Facts 300(2)

Some Facts about the National Debt 300(2)

Interpreting the Budget Deficit 302(4)

The Structural Deficit 302(2)

Inflation Accounting for Interest Payments 304(1)

Conclusion: What Happened after 1981 305(1)

Bogus Arguments About the Burden of the Debt 306(2)

Budget Deficits and Inflation 308(2)

The Monetization Issue 309(1)

Deficits, Interest Rates, and Crowding Out 310(2)

The Bottom Line 312(1)

The True Burden of the National Debt: Slower Growth 312(1)

Resolving the Issue of Deficits and Growth 313(2)

The Importance of the Policy Mix 314(1)

The Economics and Politics of the U.S. Budget Deficit 315(1)

Summary 316(1)

Key Terms 317(1)

Questions for Review 317(2)

The Phillips Curve and Economic Growth 319(22)

Is the Trade-Off Between Inflation and Unemployment a Relic of the Past 320(1)

Demand-Side Inflation Versus Supply-Side Inflation: A Review 320(1)

Applying the Model to a Growing Economy 321(1)

Demand-Side Inflation and the Phillips Curve 322(3)

Supply-Side Inflation and the Collapse of the Phillips Curve 325(1)

Explaining the 1990s 325(1)

Why Inflation and Unemployment Both Declined 326(1)

What the Phillips Curve is not 326(3)

Fighting Unemployment with Fiscal and Monetary Policy 328(1)

What Should Be Done 329(1)

The Costs of Inflation and Unemployment 329(1)

The Slope of the (Short-Run) Phillips Curve 329(1)

The Efficiency of the Economy's Self-Correcting Mechanism 329(1)

Inflationary Expectations and the Phillips Curve 330(2)

The Theory of Rational Expectations 332(2)

What Are Rational Expectations 332(1)

Rational Expectations and the Trade-off 333(1)

An Evaluation 334(1)

Why Economists (And Politicians) Disagree 334(1)

The Dilemma of Demand Management 335(1)

The Trade-off between Inflation and Unemployment 335(1)

Attempts to Reduce the Natural Rate of Unemployment 335(2)

Indexing 337(1)

Summary 338(1)

Key Terms 338(1)

Questions for Review 338(3)
PART IV The United States in the World Economy 341(58)

International Trade and Comparative Advantage 343(22)

How can Americans Compete with ``Cheap Foreign Labor'' 344(1)

Why Trade 345(1)

Mutual Gains from Trade 346(1)

International Versus International Trade 346(1)

Political Factors in International Trade 347(1)

The Many Currencies Involved in International Trade 347(1)

Impediments to Mobility of Labor and Capital 347(1)

The Law of Comparative Advantage 347(4)

The Arithmetic of Comparative Advantage 348(1)

The Graphics of Comparative Advantage 349(2)

Comparative Advantage Exposes the Fallacy of ``Cheap Foreign Labor'' 351(1)

Supply-Demand Equilibrium and Pricing in World Trade 352(1)

Tariffs, Quotas, and Other Interferences with Trade 353(3)

How Tariffs and Quotas Work 354(2)

Tariffs versus Quotas 356(1)

Why Inhibit Trade 356(3)

Gaining a Price Advantage 356(1)

Protecting Particular Industries 357(2)

Other Arguments for Protection 359(2)

National Defense and Other Noneconomic Considerations 359(1)

The Infant-Industry Argument 359(1)

Strategic Trade Policy 359(2)

Can Cheap Imports Hurt a Country 361(1)

A Last Look at the ``Cheap Foreign Labor'' Argument 362(1)

Summary 362(1)

Key Terms 363(1)

Questions for Review 363(2)

The International Monetary System: Order or Disorder 365(20)

What Happened to the Asian Tigers 366(1)

What Are Exchange Rates 366(2)

Exchange Rate Determination in a Free Market 368(4)

The Purchasing-Power Parity Theory: The Long Run 368(2)

Economic Activity and Exchange Rates: The Medium Run 370(1)

Interest Rates and Exchange Rates: The Short Run 371(1)

Market Determination of Exchange Rates: Summary 372(1)

Fixed Exchange Rates and the Balance of Payments 372(3)

Defining the Balance of Payments in Practice 374(1)

A Bit of History: The Gold Standard and the Bretton Woods System 375(1)

The Classical Gold Standard 375(1)

The Bretton Woods System 375(1)

Adjustment Mechanisms Under Fixed Exchange Rates 376(1)

Why Try to Fix Exchange Rates 377(1)

The Current ``Nonsystem'' 378(4)

The Role of the IMF 379(1)

The Volatile Dollar 379(1)

The Dawn of the Euro 380(2)

The Fate of the Asian Tigers 382(1)

Summary 382(1)

Key Terms 383(1)

Questions of Review 383(2)

Exchange Rates and the Macroeconomy 385(14)

Should the Yen Rise or Fall 386(1)

International Trade, Exchange Rates, and Aggregate Demand 386(2)

Relative Prices, Exports, and Imports 387(1)

The Effects of Changes in Exchange Rates 387(1)

Aggregate Supply in an Open Economy 388(1)

The Macroeconomic Effects of Exchange Rates 389(1)

Interest Rates and International Capital Flows 390(1)

Fiscal and Monetary Policies in an Open Economy 390(2)

Fiscal Policy Revisited 391(1)

Monetary Policy Revisited 392(1)

International Aspects of Deficit Reduction 392(2)

The Loose Link between the Budget Deficit and the Trade Deficit 393(1)

Is The Trade Deficit a Problem 394(1)

On Curing the Trade Deficit 395(2)

Change the Mix of Fiscal and Monetary Policy 395(1)

More Rapid Economic Growth Abroad 395(1)

Raise Domestic Saving or Reduce Domestic Investment 395(1)

Protectionism 396(1)

Conclusion: No Nation is an Island 397(1)

The Yen's Effect on Smaller Asian Economics 397(1)

Summary 397(1)

Key Terms 398(1)

Questions for Review 398(1)
Glossary 399(8)
Index 407