简介
The regulation of offshore decommissioning is a complex subject that requires attention in relation to immediate practical problems, as well as more long-term solutions that would address transparency and stability considerations. The defining moment for regulation of offshore decomissioning came in the form of the Brent Spar episode during the 1980s which unveiled an emotive public clash between different stakeholders (including host governments, oil companies, environmental pressure groups, the fishing industry, shipping interests, and the general public) and the possibility of 'regulatory failure'. This meant that external events could in certain extreme circumstances override lawfully sanctioned activities, and therefore that the removal and disposal of disused installations/pipelines would have to be consistent with international environmental standards and values. Sustainable development is the most widely accepted yardstick against which decommissioning regulations should be assessed. Thus, this study on 'sustainable decommissioning' looks forward to the next stage of the unfolding evolutionary process of decommissioning regulations.
目录
Foreword Professor T. Walde p. xi
Preface p. xiii
List of Abbreviations p. xv
List of Figures and Tables p. xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction p. 1
Chapter 2 Decommissioning Offshore Installations--Background p. 9
II.1. Technical Aspects p. 9
II.1.1. Decommissioning Options p. 9
II.1.2. Complete or Partial Removal p. 11
II.1.3. Removal Timing Options p. 13
II.2. Economic Perspectives p. 15
II.2.1. Cost Forecasts p. 15
II.2.2. Financing Decommissioning Costs p. 21
II.2.3. Security Against Default p. 25
II.3. Environmental Aspects of Decommissioning p. 29
II.3.1. Environmental Risks p. 29
II.3.2. Marine Environmental Impact p. 33
II.3.3. Energy Balance p. 37
II.4. Issues of Sustainability p. 39
II.4.1. International Trends Impacting on Decommissioning p. 39
II.4.2. Applicability of Sustainable Development p. 41
II.4.3. Decommissioning Aspects p. 43
II.5. Summary p. 44
Chapter 3 International Legal Framework p. 47
III.1. General Treaty Law p. 47
III.1.1. The 1958 Geneva Convention p. 47
III.1.2. The 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention p. 49
III.2. Tensions Between Decommissioning Treaties p. 51
III.2.1. Traditional Analysis p. 51
III.2.2. Contemporary Status p. 53
III.2.3. A New Approach p. 56
III.3. The 1989 IMO Guidelines and Standards p. 58
III.3.1. Technical Norms p. 58
III.3.2. Policy Impact p. 60
III.4. Offshore Dumping Conventions p. 62
III.4.1. Multilateral Treaties p. 62
III.4.2. Regional Treaties p. 65
III.5. Summary p. 74
Chapter 4 National Regulatory Frameworks and Practice p. 79
IV.1. Comparison of Developed and Less Developed States p. 79
IV.1.1. Concession/Licence Systems p. 79
IV.1.2. Production Sharing Regimes p. 82
IV.1.3. Statutory Arrangements p. 84
IV.2. Municipal Decommissioning Laws p. 88
IV.2.1. United States of America p. 88
IV.2.2. United Kingdom p. 91
IV.2.3. Indonesia p. 93
IV.2.4. Nigeria p. 97
IV.3. Contractual Aspects of Decommissioning p. 100
IV.3.1. Negotiating Decommissioning Agreements p. 100
IV.3.2. Critical Analysis of Decommissioning Clauses p. 103
IV.3.3. Inter-governmental Agreements p. 106
IV.4. State Practice p. 108
IV.4.1. The Removal of Pipelines p. 108
IV.4.2. Decommissioning Experiences p. 111
IV.4.3. Fishing Concerns p. 113
IV.5. Summary p. 117
Chapter 5 Complex Legal Issues and Policy Trends p. 121
V.1. Residual Liability Considerations p. 121
V.1.1. Ownership Concerns p. 121
V.1.2. Resolving the Problem p. 123
V.1.3. Managing Continuing Liability p. 126
V.2. Aspects of State Governance p. 129
V.2.1. Waste Transportation p. 129
V.2.2. Transboundary Litigation p. 133
V.2.3. The Brent Spar Legacy p. 136
V.3. Changing Perceptions of Decommissioning p. 141
V.3.1. Public Opinion p. 141
V.3.2. Ethical Corporate Standards p. 144
V.3.3. Global/Regional Interface p. 148
V.4. Institutional Pressure for Change p. 151
V.4.1. Non-governmental Organisations p. 151
V.4.2. Inter-governmental Organisations p. 154
V.4.3. The European Union p. 157
V.5. Summary p. 160
Chapter 6 Sustainable Decommissioning Theory p. 165
VI.1. Emergent Environmental Obligations p. 165
VI.1.1. Environmental Impact Assessment p. 165
VI.1.2. Environmental Audit/Management p. 168
VI.1.3. International Law Concepts p. 170
VI.2. Moves Towards Sustainable Decommissioning p. 174
VI.2.1. Obstacles to Sustainable Decommissioning p. 174
VI.2.2. Sustainable Development Perspective p. 176
VI.2.3. Elements of Sustainability p. 179
VI.3. Sustainable Decommissioning Regulation p. 184
VI.3.1. Sustainable Decommissioning Strategy p. 184
VI.3.2. Implementation and Compliance p. 187
VI.3.3. Enforcing Sustainable Decommissioning p. 190
VI.4. Summary p. 193
Chapter 7 Conclusion p. 197
Selected Bibliography p. 209
Appendices p. 227
Index p. 235
Preface p. xiii
List of Abbreviations p. xv
List of Figures and Tables p. xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction p. 1
Chapter 2 Decommissioning Offshore Installations--Background p. 9
II.1. Technical Aspects p. 9
II.1.1. Decommissioning Options p. 9
II.1.2. Complete or Partial Removal p. 11
II.1.3. Removal Timing Options p. 13
II.2. Economic Perspectives p. 15
II.2.1. Cost Forecasts p. 15
II.2.2. Financing Decommissioning Costs p. 21
II.2.3. Security Against Default p. 25
II.3. Environmental Aspects of Decommissioning p. 29
II.3.1. Environmental Risks p. 29
II.3.2. Marine Environmental Impact p. 33
II.3.3. Energy Balance p. 37
II.4. Issues of Sustainability p. 39
II.4.1. International Trends Impacting on Decommissioning p. 39
II.4.2. Applicability of Sustainable Development p. 41
II.4.3. Decommissioning Aspects p. 43
II.5. Summary p. 44
Chapter 3 International Legal Framework p. 47
III.1. General Treaty Law p. 47
III.1.1. The 1958 Geneva Convention p. 47
III.1.2. The 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention p. 49
III.2. Tensions Between Decommissioning Treaties p. 51
III.2.1. Traditional Analysis p. 51
III.2.2. Contemporary Status p. 53
III.2.3. A New Approach p. 56
III.3. The 1989 IMO Guidelines and Standards p. 58
III.3.1. Technical Norms p. 58
III.3.2. Policy Impact p. 60
III.4. Offshore Dumping Conventions p. 62
III.4.1. Multilateral Treaties p. 62
III.4.2. Regional Treaties p. 65
III.5. Summary p. 74
Chapter 4 National Regulatory Frameworks and Practice p. 79
IV.1. Comparison of Developed and Less Developed States p. 79
IV.1.1. Concession/Licence Systems p. 79
IV.1.2. Production Sharing Regimes p. 82
IV.1.3. Statutory Arrangements p. 84
IV.2. Municipal Decommissioning Laws p. 88
IV.2.1. United States of America p. 88
IV.2.2. United Kingdom p. 91
IV.2.3. Indonesia p. 93
IV.2.4. Nigeria p. 97
IV.3. Contractual Aspects of Decommissioning p. 100
IV.3.1. Negotiating Decommissioning Agreements p. 100
IV.3.2. Critical Analysis of Decommissioning Clauses p. 103
IV.3.3. Inter-governmental Agreements p. 106
IV.4. State Practice p. 108
IV.4.1. The Removal of Pipelines p. 108
IV.4.2. Decommissioning Experiences p. 111
IV.4.3. Fishing Concerns p. 113
IV.5. Summary p. 117
Chapter 5 Complex Legal Issues and Policy Trends p. 121
V.1. Residual Liability Considerations p. 121
V.1.1. Ownership Concerns p. 121
V.1.2. Resolving the Problem p. 123
V.1.3. Managing Continuing Liability p. 126
V.2. Aspects of State Governance p. 129
V.2.1. Waste Transportation p. 129
V.2.2. Transboundary Litigation p. 133
V.2.3. The Brent Spar Legacy p. 136
V.3. Changing Perceptions of Decommissioning p. 141
V.3.1. Public Opinion p. 141
V.3.2. Ethical Corporate Standards p. 144
V.3.3. Global/Regional Interface p. 148
V.4. Institutional Pressure for Change p. 151
V.4.1. Non-governmental Organisations p. 151
V.4.2. Inter-governmental Organisations p. 154
V.4.3. The European Union p. 157
V.5. Summary p. 160
Chapter 6 Sustainable Decommissioning Theory p. 165
VI.1. Emergent Environmental Obligations p. 165
VI.1.1. Environmental Impact Assessment p. 165
VI.1.2. Environmental Audit/Management p. 168
VI.1.3. International Law Concepts p. 170
VI.2. Moves Towards Sustainable Decommissioning p. 174
VI.2.1. Obstacles to Sustainable Decommissioning p. 174
VI.2.2. Sustainable Development Perspective p. 176
VI.2.3. Elements of Sustainability p. 179
VI.3. Sustainable Decommissioning Regulation p. 184
VI.3.1. Sustainable Decommissioning Strategy p. 184
VI.3.2. Implementation and Compliance p. 187
VI.3.3. Enforcing Sustainable Decommissioning p. 190
VI.4. Summary p. 193
Chapter 7 Conclusion p. 197
Selected Bibliography p. 209
Appendices p. 227
Index p. 235
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