Preface
　　Acknowledgements
　　1 What is pragmatics?
　　 1.1 Introduction
　　 1.2 Defining pragmatics
　　 1.3 From abstract meaning to contextual meaning
　　 1.3.1 Assigning sense in context
　　 1.3.2 Assigning reference in context
　　 1.3.3 Structural ambiguity
　　 1.3.4 Interaction of sense, reference and structure
　　 1.3.5 Ambiguity and intentionality
　　 1.4 Utterance meaning: the first level of speaker, meaning
　　 1.4.1 Importance of utterance meaning
　　 1.5 Force: the second level of speaker meaning
　　 1.5.1 Understanding both utterance meaning and force
　　 1.5.2 Understanding utterance meaning:but not force
　　 1.5.3 Understanding force but not utterance meaning
　　 1.5.4 Understandingneither utterance meaning ,nor force
　　 1.5.5 Interrelationship of utterance meaning: and force
　　 1.6 Definitions of pragmatics (revisited)
　　 1.6.1 Speaker meaning
　　 1.6.2 Utterance interpretation
　　 1.6.3 Pragmatics: meaning in interaction
　　 1.7 Summary
　　2 Speech acts
　　 2.1 J.L.Austin
　　 2.2 Ordinary language philosophy
　　 2.3 Logical positivism and truth conditional semantics
　　 2.4 The performative hypothesis
　　 2.4.1 Metalinguistic performatives
　　 2.4.2 Ritual performatives
　　 2.4.2.1 Felicity conditions
　　 2.4.2.2 Explicit reference to felicity conditions
　　 2.4.3 Collaborative pefformatives
　　 2.4.4 Group performatives
　　 2.4.5 Overlap of categories
　　 2.4.6 Cross-cultural differences in use ofperformatives
　　 2.4.7 Collapse of Austin's performative hypothesis
　　 2.4.7.1 The grammatical distinctiveness of pefformatives
　　 2.4.7.2 Do performatives always perform actions?
　　 2.4.7.3 How to do things without performative verbs
　　 2.4.8 Explicit and implicit performatives
　　 2.5 Utterances as actions
　　 2.5.1 Locution, illocution, perlocution
　　 2.5.2 Speech acts
　　 2.6 Conclusion
　　3 Conversational implicature
　　 3.1 Introduction
　　 3.2 H.P.Gricc
　　 3.3 Implicature
　　 3.3.1 Conventional implicature
　　 3.3.2 Conversational implicature
　　 3.3.3 Implicature and inference
　　 3.4 The Cooperative Principle
　　 3.5 The four conversational maxims
　　 3.5.1 Observing the maxims
　　 3.5.2 Non-observance of the maxims
　　 3.6 Flouting a maxim
　　 3.6.1 Flouts necessitated by a clash between maxims
　　 3.6.2 Flouts which exploit a maxim
　　 3.6.2.1 Flouts exploiting the maxim of Quality
　　 3.6.2.2 Flouts exploiting the maxim of Quantity
　　 3.6.2.3 Flouts exploiting the maxim of Relation
　　 3.6.2.4 Flouts exploiting the maxim of Manner
　　 3.7 Other categories of non-observance of the conversational maxims
　　 3.7.1 Violating a maxim
　　 3.7.2 Infringing a maxim
　　 3.7.3 Opting out of a maxim
　　 3.7.4 Suspending a maxim
　　 3.8 Testing for implicature
　　 3.8.1 Non-detachability and non-conventionality
　　 3.8.2 Implicature changes
　　 3.8.3 Calculability
　　 3.8.4 Defeasibility
　　 3.9 Conclusion
　　4 Approaches to pragmatics
　　 4.1 Introduction
　　 4.2 Problems with Grice's theory
　　 4.2.1 When is non-obServance, intentional?
　　 4.2.2 Distinguishing between types of non, observance
　　 4.2.3 Different nature of maxims
　　 4.2.4 Maxims may overlap
　　 4.2.5 Problems, of calculability
　　 4.3 Grice's informal approach
　　 4.4 J.R.Searle
　　 4.4.1 Indirect speech acts
　　 4.4.2 Searle's conditions for speech acts
　　 4.4.2.1 Distinguishing speech acts
　　 4.4.2.2 Plugging the gaps in Searle's rules
　　 4.4.2.3 The speech act of apologizing: a case study
　　 4.4.2.4 Over-generality of rules
　　 4.4.2.5 The speech act of warning: a case study
　　 4.5 Searle's formal approach to the categorization of speech acts
　　 4.6 Rules versus principles
　　 4.6.1 Rules are all or nothing, principles are more or less
　　 4.6.2 Rules are exclusive, principles can co-occur
　　 4.6.3 Rules are constitutive, principles are regulative
　　 4.6.4 Rules are definite, principles are probabilistic
　　 4.6.5 Rules are conventional, principles are motivated
　　 4.7 Conclusion
　　5 Pragmatics and indirectness
　　 5.1 Introduction
　　 5.2 Pragmatics and indirectness
　　 5.2.1 Intentional indirectness
　　 5.2.2 Indirectness is costly and risky
　　 5.2.3 Assumption of rationality
　　 5.2.4 The principle ofexpressibility
　　 5.2.5 Indirectness- an illustration
　　 5.3 How do we know how indirect to be?
　　 5.3.1 Power
　　 5.3.2 Social distance
　　 5.3.3 Size of imposition
　　 5.3.4 Rights and obligations
　　 5.3.5 The negotiation of pragmatic parameters
　　 5.4 Measuring indirectness
　　 5.4.1 The role of context in. interpreting indirectness
　　 5.4.2 The role of belief in interpreting indirectness
　　 5.4.3 Background knowledge and interpreting indirectness
　　 5.4.4 The role of co-text in interpreting indirectness
　　 5.4.5 Goals and the interpretation of indirectness
　　 5.5 Why use indirectness?
　　 5.5.1 Interestingness
　　 5.5.2 Increasing the force of one's message
　　 5.5.3 Competing goals
　　 5.6 Conclusion
　　6 Theories of politeness
　　 6.1 Introduction
　　 6.2 Delimiting the conccpt of politeness
　　 6.2.1 Politeness as a real-world goal
　　 6.2.2 Deference versus politeness
　　 6.2.3 Register
　　 6.2.4 Politeness as an utterance level phenomenon
　　 6.2.5 Politeness as a pragmatic phenomenon
　　 6.3 Politeness explained in, terms of principles and maxims
　　 6.3.1 Ambivalence and politeness
　　 6.3.2 Pragmatic principles
　　 6.3.2.1 The Tact maxim
　　 6.3.2.2 The GenerosiW maxim
　　 6.3.2.3 The Approbation maxim
　　 6.3.2.4 The Modesty maxim
　　 6.3.2.5 The Agreement maxim
　　 6.3.2.6 The Pollyanna Principle
　　 6.3.3 Problems with Leech's approach
　　 6.4 Politeness and the management of face
　　 6.4.1 Face-threatening acts
　　 6.4.1.1 Supcrstratcgics for pcrforming face-threatening acts
　　 6.4.1.2 Performing an FTA without any redress (bald-on-record)
　　 6.4.1.3 Performing an FTA with redress (positive politeness)
　　 6.4.1.4 Performing an FTA with redress (negative politeness)
　　 6.4.1.5 Performing an FTA using off-record politeness
　　 6.4.1.6 Do not perform FTA
　　 6.4.2 Criticisms of Brown and Levinson
　　 6.5 Politeness viewed as a conversational contract
　　 6.6 Politeness measured along pragmatic scales
　　 6.7 Conclusion
　　7 The construction of meaning
　　 7.1 Introduction
　　 7.2 How does pragmatics fit into linguistics?
　　 7.3 Pragmatics versus sociolinguistics
　　 7.3.1 Overlap between pragmatics and sociolinguistics
　　 7.4 Activity types versus speech events
　　 7.5 The construction of meaning
　　 7.5.1 Pragmatic ambivalence
　　 7.5.2 The collaborative nature of speech acts
　　 7.5.3 The negotiability of force
　　 7.5.4 Preparing the ground for a speech act
　　 7.5.5 Successive utterances in situated discourse
　　 7.5.6 Discoursal ambivalence
　　 7.5.7 Dynamic pragmatics
　　 7.6 What counts as evidence in pragmatics?
　　 7.6.1 Perlocutionary effect
　　 7.6.2 Explicit commentary by speaker
　　 7.6.3 Explicit commentary by others
　　 7.6.4 Co-text (subsequent discourse)
　　 7.7 Conclusion
　　References
　　Index of Names
　　Index of Subjects