English writing mechanics: writer’s handbook

　　Part One Punctuation
　　 Ⅰ End punctuation marks
　　 1 Period (.)
　　 1)As end-up signal
　　 2)As omission signal
　　 3)As decimal marker
　　 4)As separator
　　 2 Question mark ( ? )
　　 1)Used after every direct question, including a short within-sentence
　　 parenthetical question
　　 2)Used within parentheses to express the writer's uncertainty about the
　　 correctness of some facts
　　 3 Exclamation point ( ! )
　　 Ⅱ Internal punctuation marks
　　 1 Comma (,)
　　 1)As introducer
　　 2)As coordinator
　　 3)As inserter
　　 4)As linker
　　 5)As separator
　　 6)As indicator
　　 2 Semicolon ( ; )
　　 1)Between two sentences that are closely connected in idea, or independent
　　 clauses when they are not joined by the coordinating conjunctions
　　 and, but, for, or and nor
　　 2)Before sentence connectors and some transitional phrases (connectors like
　　 however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore, etc.;
　　 transitional phrases like for example, as a result, that is, in fact, etc.)
　　 3)Between items in a series when any of the items listed already contains
　　 commas, or when the clause-items are long
　　 3 Colon ( : )
　　 1)To introduce a list of appositives, or a list of any other kind that
　　 is introduced by such words as the following or as follows
　　 2)To introduce formally a direct quotation
　　 3)To connect two independent clauses when the second clause
　　 enlarges on or explains the first
　　 4)To separate the main title and subtitle of a book, an article or a play
　　 5)To separate the hours and minutes
　　 6)To follow the salutation of a formal letter or the introductory remark
　　 of a speaker to the chairman and audience
　　 4 Dash (--)
　　 1)Used to emphasize
　　 2)Used to mark a sudden break in thought, an interruption,
　　 or an abrupt change in tone
　　 3)Used to set offa series of appositives
　　 4)Used to separate a summarizing clause from a series of items
　　 5)Used to set offa parenthetical element that is very abrupt
　　 or that has commas within it
　　 6)Used to indicate the omission of letters or words
　　 5 Virgule ( / )
　　 1)Used to indicate alternatives
　　 2)Used to indicate an abbreviated form
　　 3)Used to represent per in abbreviations of rates and rations
　　 4)Used to separate divisions of a period of time
　　 5)Used to separate run-in lines of poetry
　　 Ⅲ Enclosing marks
　　 1 Quotation marks ( )(' ' )
　　 1)Three basic functions of quotation marks
　　 2)Rules for punctuation associated with quotation marks
　　 3)British style compared with American style
　　 2 Parentheses (())
　　 1)Functions of parentheses
　　 2)Mechanics in writing the parenthetical information
　　 3 Brackets ( [ ] )
　　 1)To insert comments or explanations, and supplied omissions added to
　　 a quotation by the person quoting
　　 2)To enclose the Latin word sic (so/thus)to indicate strange usage
　　 or an error such as misspelling or incorrect grammar in a quotation
　　 3)To provide parenthetical information within parentheses
　　 4)To enclose English phonetic symbols
　　 Ⅳ Punctuation of individual words and of terms
　　 1 Apostrophe (')
　　 1)To help to form the possessive case of~ a noun or an indefinite pronoun
　　 2)To indicate that one or more letters have been omitted from a word or phrase,
　　 resulting in a contraction
　　 3)To signal the plural of letters, figures, symbols, and words (First italicize
　　 or underline the element, and then add a non-italicized "'s.")
　　 2 Ellipses/Ellipsis points (...)
　　 1)To indicate the omission of words from a quotation
　　 2)To indicate hesitation, pauses, or a sudden halt in speech
　　 3 Hyphen ( - )
　　 1)Used to connect parts of a compound adjective modifying a noun
　　 2)Used to connect parts of a compound noun
　　 3)Used to connect parts of a compound number or fraction when it is written out
　　 4)Used to connect parts of a compound verb
　　 5)Used to connect parts of an inclusive number or date
　　 6)Used to connect parts of a word whose prefix is separated from its main stem
　　 7)Used to connect parts of a word divided at the end of a line
　　Part Two Capitalization
　　Part Three Numbers and Abbreviations
　　Part Four Italks
　　Part Five Hyphens and Syllabification
　　Part Six Documentation
　　Part Seven Com mon Sentence Problems
　　Abbreviations of American State Names
　　Roman Numerals
　　Correction Symbols
　　Bibliography