CONTENTS
Preface xxv
PART I
Becoming African American 1
1
Africa 2
A Huge and Diverse Land 3
The Birthplace of Humanity 5
Ancient Civilizations and Old Arguments 5
Egyptian Civilization 6
Kush, Meroe, and Axum 7
West Africa 8
Ancient Ghana 9
VOICES Al Bakri Describes Kumbi Saleh and Ghana?s Royal Court 10
The Empire of Mali, 1230?1468 11
The Empire of Songhai, 1464?1591 11
The West African Forest Region 13
Kongo and Angola 15
West African Society and Culture 15
VOICES A Dutch Visitor Describes Benin City 16
Families and Villages 16
PROFILE Nzinga Mbemba (Affonso I) of Kongo 17
Women 18
Class and Slavery 18
Religion 19
Art and Music 19
Literature: Oral Histories, Poetry, and Tales 20
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
2
Middle Passage 24
The European Age of Exploration and Colonization 26
The Slave Trade in Africa 26
The Origins of the Atlantic Slave Trade 27
Growth of the Atlantic Slave Trade 27
The African-American Ordeal from Capture to Destination 29
The Crossing 30
The Slavers 31
A Slave?s Story 32
PROFILE Olaudah Equiano 33
A Captain?s Story 34
VOICES The Journal of a Dutch Slaver 35
PROFILE Ayuba Sulieman Diallo of Bondu 36
Provisions for the Middle Passage 37
Sanitation, Disease, and Death 37
Resistance and Revolt at Sea 38
Cruelty 38
VOICES Dysentery (or the Bloody Flux)
African Women on Slave Ships 39
Landing and Sale in the West Indies 39
Seasoning 40
The End of the Journey: Masters and Slaves in the Americas 42
The Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade 43
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
3
Black People in Colonial North America, 1526?1763
The Peoples of Eastern North America 48
Eastern Woodlands Indians 48
The British and Jamestown 49
Africans Arrive in the Chesapeake 50
Black Servitude in the Chesapeake 51
Race and the Origins of Black Slavery 51
PROFILE Anthony Johnson 52
The Emergence of Chattel Slavery 53
Bacon?s Rebellion and American Slavery 54
Plantation Slavery, 1700?1750 54
Low-Country Slavery 56
VOICES A Description of an Eighteenth-Century Virginia Plantation 57
Slave Life in Early America 58
Miscegenation and Creolization 59
The Origins of African-American Culture 60
The Great Awakening 61
VOICES A Poem by Jupiter Hammon 62
Language, Music, and Folk Literature 62
The African-American Impact on Colonial Culture 63
Slavery in the Northern Colonies 64
Slavery in Spanish Florida and French Louisiana 65
Black Women in Colonial America 66
Black Resistance and Rebellion 67
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
4
Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for
Independence, 1763?1783 72
The Crisis of the British Empire 74
PROFILE Crispus Attucks 76
The Declaration of Independence and African Americans 77
The Impact of the Enlightenment 77
African Americans in the Revolutionary Debate 78
Black Enlightenment 78
VOICES Boston?s Slaves Link Their Freedom to American Liberty 79
Phillis Wheatley 80
Benjamin Banneker 80
VOICES Phillis Wheatley on Liberty and Natural Rights 81
African Americans in the War for Independence 82
Black Loyalists 83
Black Patriots 84
The Revolution and Emancipation 86
The Revolutionary Impact 87
The Revolutionary Promise 89
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
5
African Americans in the New Nation, 1783?1820 94
Forces for Freedom 96
Northern Emancipation 96
PROFILE Elizabeth Freeman 98
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 99
The Louisiana Purchase and African Americans in the Lower Mississippi Valley 100
Antislavery Societies in the North and Upper South 100
Manumission and Self-Purchase 101
The Emergence of a Free Black Class in the South 101
Forces for Slavery 101
The United States Constitution 102
Cotton 103
Conservatism and Racism 103
The Emergence of Free Black Communities 104
The Origins of Independent Black Churches 106
VOICES Richard Allen on the Break with St. George?s Church 107
The First Black Schools 107
Black Leaders and Choices 108
VOICES Absalom Jones Petitions Congress on Behalf of Fugitives Facing Reenslavement 109
PROFILE James Forten 110
Migration 111
Slave Uprisings 111
The White Southern Reaction 113
The War of 1812 113
The Missouri Compromise 114
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
Visualizing the Past
Interpreting the Past
PART II
Slavery, Abolition, and the Quest for Freedom: The Coming of the
Civil War, 1793?1861 120
6
Life in the Cotton Kingdom 122
PROFILE Solomon Northup 124
The Expansion of Slavery 125
Slave Population Growth 125
Ownership of Slaves in the Old South 125
Slave Labor in Agriculture 126
Tobacco 127
Rice 127
Sugar 128
Cotton 129
Other Crops 130
House Servants and Skilled Slaves 131
Urban and Industrial Slavery 131
PROFILE William Ellison 132
Punishment 133
The Domestic Slave Trade 134
VOICES Frederick Douglass on the Readiness of Masters to Use the Whip 134
Slave Families 135
VOICES A Slaveowner Describes a New Purchase 136
Children 137
Sexual Exploitation 137
Diet 138
Clothing 139
Health 139
The Socialization of Slaves 140
Religion 141
The Character of Slavery and Slaves 142
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
7
Free Black People in Antebellum America 146
Demographics of Freedom 148
The Jacksonian Era 149
Limited Freedom in the North 150
Black Laws 151
Disfranchisement 152
Segregation 153
Black Communities in the Urban North 154
The Black Family 154
The Struggle for Employment 154
The Northern Black Elite 155
VOICES Maria W. Stewart on the Condition of Black Workers 156
Black Professionals 157
Artists and Musicians 157
Black Authors 157
PROFILE Stephen Smith and William Whipper, Partners in Business and Reform 158
African-American Institutions 159
Black Churches 160
Schools 161 Voluntary Associations 162
VOICES The Constitution of the Pittsburgh Education Society 163
Free African Americans in the Upper South 163
Free African Americans in the Deep South 165
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
8
Opposition to Slavery, 1800?1833 170
A Country in Turmoil 172
Political Paranoia 172
The Second Great Awakening 173
The Benevolent Empire 173
Abolitionism Begins in America 174
From Gabriel to Denmark Vesey 175
The American Colonization Society 176
Black Nationalism and Colonization 177
Black Opposition to Colonization 177
Black Women Abolitionists 178
The Baltimore Alliance 179
PROFILE Maria W. Stewart 179
VOICES A Black Woman Speaks Out on the Right to Education 180
David Walker?s Appeal 181
Nat Turner 182
VOICES William Watkins Opposes Colonization 182
PROFILE David Walker 183
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
9
Let Your Motto Be Resistance, 1833?1850 188
A Rising Tide of Racism and Violence 190
Antiblack and Antiabolitionist Riots 190
PROFILE Henry Highland Garnet 191
Texas and the War against Mexico 193
The Response of the Antislavery Movement 193
The American Anti-Slavery Society 193
Black and Women?s Antislavery Societies 193
The Black Convention Movement 194
PROFILE Sojourner Truth 195
Black Community Institutions 196
Black Churches in the Antislavery Cause 196
Black Newspapers 196
Moral Suasion 197
The American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the Liberty Party 198
VOICES Frederick Douglass Describes an Awkward Situation 198
A More Aggressive Abolitionism 199
The Amistad and the Creole 200
The Underground Railroad 200
Canada West 201
Black Militancy 201
Frederick Douglass 202
Black Nationalism 203
VOICES Martin R. Delany Describes His Vision of a Black Nation 204
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
10
?And Black People Were at the Heart of It?: The United States
Disunites Over Slavery 208
Free Labor versus Slave Labor 210
The Wilmot Proviso 210
California and the Compromise of 1850 210
Fugitive Slave Laws 211
Fugitive Slaves 213
PROFILE Mary Ellen Pleasant
William and Ellen Craft 213
Shadrach 214
The Battle at Christiana 214
VOICES African Americans Respond to the Fugitive Slave Law 214
PROFILE Thomas Sims, A Fugitive Slave 215
Anthony Burns 215
Margaret Garner 216
The Rochester Convention, 1853 216
Nativism and the Know-Nothings 217
Uncle Tom?s Cabin 217
The Kansas-Nebraska Act 217
Preston Brooks Attacks Charles Sumner 219
The Dred Scott Decision 219
Questions for the Court 220
Reaction to the Dred Scott Decision 220
White Northerners and Black Americans 221
The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 221
PROFILE Martin R. Delany 222
Abraham Lincoln and Black People 223
John Brown and the Raid on Harpers Ferry 223
Planning the Raid 223
The Raid 224
The Reaction 224
The Election of Abraham Lincoln 225
Black People Respond to Lincoln?s Election 225
Disunion 226
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
Visualizing the Past
Interpreting the Past
PART III
The Civil War, Emancipation, and Black Reconstruction: The
Second American Revolution 230
11
Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War 232
Lincoln?s Aims 234
Black Men Volunteer and Are Rejected 234
Union Policies toward Confederate Slaves 234
?Contraband? 235
Lincoln?s Initial Position 236
Lincoln Moves toward Emancipation 236
Lincoln Delays Emancipation 236
Black People Reject Colonization 237
The Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation 237
Northern Reaction to Emancipation 237
Political Opposition to Emancipation 238
The Emancipation Proclamation 238
Limits of the Proclamation 238
Effects of the Proclamation on the South 239
PROFILE Elizabeth Keckley 240
Black Men Fight for the Union 241
The First South Carolina Volunteers 242
The Second South Carolina Volunteers 242
The 54th Massachusetts Regiment 242
Black Soldiers Confront Discrimination 243
Black Men in Combat 244
VOICES: A Black Nurse on the Horrors of War and the Sacrifice of Black Soldiers
The Assault on Battery Wagner 244
VOICES Lewis Douglass Describes the Fighting at Battery Wagner 245
Olustee 246
The Crater 246
The Confederate Reaction to Black Soldiers 246
The Abuse and Murder of Black Troops 246
The Fort Pillow Massacre 247
Black Men in the Union Navy 247
PROFILE Harriet Tubman 248
Liberators, Spies, and Guides 249
Violent Opposition to Black People 249
The New York City Draft Riot 249
Union Troops and Slaves 249
Refugees 250
Black People and the Confederacy 251
The Impressment of Black People 251
Confederates Enslave Free Black People 251
Black Confederates 251
Personal Servants 252
Black Men Fighting for the South 252
Black Opposition to the Confederacy 253
The Confederate Debate on Black Troops 253
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
12
The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction, 1865?
1868 258
The End of Slavery 260
Differing Reactions of Former Slaves 260
Reuniting Black Families 260
Land 261
Special Field Order #15 261
The Port Royal Experiment 262
VOICES A Freedmen?s Bureau Commissioner Tells Freed People What Freedom Means 262
The Freedmen?s Bureau 262
Southern Homestead Act 264
Sharecropping 264
The Black Church 264
Education 267
Black Teachers 267
VOICES A Northern Black Woman on Teaching Freedmen 268
Black Colleges 269
Response of White Southerners 270
PROFILE Charlotte E. Ray 271
Violence 271
The Crusade for Political and Civil Rights 272
PROFILE Aaron A. Bradley 273
Presidential Reconstruction under Andrew Johnson 274
Black Codes 274
Black Conventions 274
The Radical Republicans 276
Radical Proposals 276
The Freedmen?s Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights Bill 276
Johnson?s Vetoes 276
The Fourteenth Amendment 277
Radical Reconstruction 277
Universal Manhood Suffrage 278
Black Politics 278
Sit-Ins and Strikes 278
The Reaction of White Southerners 278
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
13
The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction 284
Constitutional Conventions 286
Elections 287
Black Political Leaders 287
The Issues 288
Education and Social Welfare 288
PROFILE The Gibbs Brothers 289
Civil Rights 290
Economic Issues 290
Land 290
Business and Industry 291
Black Politicians: An Evaluation 291
Republican Factionalism 291
Opposition 291
PROFILE The Rollin Sisters 292
The Ku Klux Klan 293
VOICES An Appeal for Help Against the Klan 295
The Fifteenth Amendment 295
The Enforcement Acts 296
The North Loses Interest 297
The Freedmen?s Bank 297
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 298
VOICES Black Leaders Support the Passage of a Civil Rights Act 299
The End of Reconstruction 299
Violent Redemption 300
The Shotgun Policy 300
The Hamburg Massacre 300
The Compromise of 1877 301
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
Visualizing the Past
Interpreting the Past
PART IV
Searching for Safe Spaces 306
14
White Supremacy Triumphant: African Americans in the South in
the Late Nineteenth Century 308
Politics 310
Black Congressmen 311
Democrats and Farmer Discontent 311
The Colored Farmers? Alliance 313
The Populist Party 313
Disfranchisement 314
Evading the Fifteenth Amendment 314
Mississippi 314
South Carolina 315
The Grandfather Clause 315
Segregation 315
Jim Crow 316
Segregation on the Railroads 316
Plessy v. Ferguson 316
VOICES Majority and Dissenting Opinions on Plessy v. Ferguson 317
Streetcar Segregation 318
Segregation Proliferates 318
Racial Etiquette 318
Violence 319
Washington County, Texas 319
The Phoenix Riot 319
The Wilmington Riot 319
The New Orleans Riot 319
Lynching 320
Rape 321
PROFILE Ida Wells Barnett 322
Migration 323
The Liberian Exodus 323
The Exodusters 323
Migration within the South 324
Black Farm Families 324
Sharecroppers 324
Renters 325
Crop Liens 325
Peonage 326
VOICES Cash and Debt for the Black Cotton Farmer 326
Black Landowners 326
White Resentment of Black Success 327
PROFILE Johnson C. Whittaker 328
African Americans and Southern Courts 329
Segregated Justice 329
The Convict Lease System 329
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
15
Black Southerners Challenge White Supremacy 334
Social Darwinism 336
Education and Schools 336
Segregated Schools 337
The Hampton Model 338
Washington and the Tuskegee Model 338
Critics of the Tuskegee Model 340
VOICES Thomas E. Miller and the Mission of the Black Land-Grant College 340
Church and Religion 341
The Church as Solace and Escape 343
The Holiness Movement and the Pentecostal Church 343
PROFILE Henry McNeal Turner 344
Roman Catholics and Episcopalians 345
Red versus Black: The Buffalo Soldiers 345
Discrimination in the Army 345
The Buffalo Soldiers in Combat 346
Civilian Hostility to Black Soldiers 346
Brownsville 346
African Americans in the Navy 347
The Black Cowboys 347
The Spanish-American War 347
Black Officers 348
A Splendid Little War 349
After the War 349
VOICES Black Men in Battle in Cuba 350
The Philippine Insurrection 351
Would Black Men Fight Brown Men? 351
Black Businesspeople and Entrepreneurs 351
PROFILE Maggie Lena Walker 352
African Americans and Labor 353
Unions 353
Strikes 354
Black Professionals 355
Medicine 355
PROFILE A Man And His Horse: Dr. William Key And Beautiful Jim Key
The Law 356
Music 356
Ragtime 356
Jazz 357
The Blues 357
Sports 358
Jack Johnson 358
Baseball 359
Basketball and Other Sports 359
College Athletics 359
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
16
Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the
Early Twentieth Century 364
Race and the Progressive Movement 366
Booker T. Washington?s Approach 366
Washington?s Influence 367
The Tuskegee Machine 368
Opposition to Washington 369
W. E. B. Du Bois 369
VOICES W. E. B. Du Bois on Being Black in America 370
The Niagara Movement 371
The NAACP 372
PROFILE Mary Church Terrell
Using the System 372
Du Bois and The Crisis 372
Washington versus the NAACP 373
The Urban League 374
Black Women and the Club Movement 374
The NACW: ?Lifting as We Climb? 374
Phillis Wheatley Clubs 374
PROFILE Jane Edna Hunter and the Phillis Wheatley Association
Anna Julia Cooper and Black Feminism 376
Women?s Suffrage 376
The Black Elite 376
The American Negro Academy 376
PROFILE Lewis Latimer, Black Inventor 377
The Upper Class 378
Fraternities and Sororities 378
Presidential Politics 378
Frustrated by the Republicans 378
Woodrow Wilson 378
PROFILE George Washington Carver and Ernest Everett Just 379
Black Men and the Military in World War I 380
The Punitive Expedition to Mexico 380
World War I 381
Black Troops and Officers 381
Discrimination and Its Effects 381
Du Bois?s Disappointment 383
Race Riots 383
Atlanta 1906 384
Springfield 1908 385
East St. Louis 1917 385
Houston 1917 386
Chicago 1919 387
Elaine 1919 387
Tulsa 1921 387
Rosewood 1923 388
The Great Migration 388
Why Migrate? 388
Destinations 390
VOICES A Migrant to the North Writes Home 390
Northern Communities 391
Chicago 392
Harlem 392
Families 393
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
17
African Americans and the 1920s 400
Strikes and the Red Scare 402
Varieties of Racism 402
Scientific Racism 403
The Birth of a Nation 403
The Ku Klux Klan 404
Protest, Pride, and Pan-Africanism: Black Organizations in the Twenties 404
The NAACP 404
VOICES The Negro National Anthem: ?Lift Every Voice and Sing? 405
PROFILE James Weldon Johnson 406
?Up You Mighty Race?: Marcus Garvey and the UNIA 407
VOICES Marcus Garvey Appeals for a New African Nation 408
Pan-Africanism 410
Labor 411
The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 412
A. Philip Randolph 412
The Harlem Renaissance 413
Before Harlem 414
Writers and Artists 415
White People and the Harlem Renaissance 417
Harlem and the Jazz Age 418
PROFILE Bessie Smith 419
Song, Dance, and Stage 420
Sports 420
Rube Foster 421
College Sports 421
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
Visualizing the Past
Interpreting the Past
PART V
The Great Depression and World War II 426
18
The Great Depression and the New Deal 428
The Cataclysm, 1929?1933 430
Harder Times for Black America 430
Black Businesses in the Depression: Collapse and Survival 431
The Failure of Relief 433
African Americans and the New Deal 434
Roosevelt and the First New Deal, 1933?1935 434
Black Officials in the New Deal 435
PROFILE Robert Weaver
VOICES A Black Sharecropper Details Abuse in the Administration of Agricultural Relief 436
Black Social Scientists and the New Deal 437
PROFILE Mary McLeod Bethune
African Americans and the Second New Deal 439
Black Protest During the Great Depression 441
The NAACP and Civil Rights Struggles 441
Du Bois Ignites a Controversy 441
Challenging Racial Discrimination in the Courts 442
Black Women and Community Organizing 443
Organized Labor and Black America 444
VOICES A. Philip Randolph Inspires a Young Black Activist
The Communist Party and African Americans 445
The International Labor Defense and the ?Scottsboro Boys" 445
PROFILE Angelo Herndon 446
Debating Communist Leadership 447
The National Negro Congress 448
The Tuskegee Study 448
VOICES Hoboing in Alabama 449
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
19
Black Culture and Society in the 1930s and 1940s 454
Black Culture in a Midwestern City 456
The Black Culture Industry and American Racism 457
The Music Culture from Swing to Bebop 457
PROFILE Charlie Parker 458
Popular Culture for the Masses: Comic Strips, Radio, and the Movies 460
The Comics 460
Radio and Race 460
Race, Representation, and the Movies 461
The Black Chicago Renaissance 463
PROFILE Langston Hughes 464
Gospel in Chicago: Thomas Dorsey 466
Chicago in Dance and Song: Katherine Dunham and Billie Holiday 466
VOICES Margaret Walker on Black Culture 467
VOICES Billie Holiday, 1915?1959 and ?Strange Fruit? 469
Black Graphic Art 470
Black Literature 470
Richard Wright?s Native Son 471
James Baldwin Challenges Wright 471
Ralph Ellison and Invisible Man 472
African Americans in Sports 472
Jesse Owens and Joe Louis 473
Breaking the Color Barrier in Baseball 473
Black Religious Culture 474
The Nation of Islam 474
Father Divine and the Peace Mission Movement 474
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
20
The World War II Era and Seeds of a Revolution 480
On the Eve of War, 1936?1941 482
African Americans and the Emerging World Crisis 483
A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington Movement 483
Executive Order #8802 485
Race and the U.S. Armed Forces
Profile Steven Robinson and the Montford Point Marines
Institutional Racism in the American Military 485
The Costs of Military Discrimination 486
Soldiers and Civilians Protest Military Discrimination 487
Black Women in the Struggle to Desegregate the Military 487
VOICES William H. Hastie Resigns in Protest 488
The Beginning of Military Desegregation 489
VOICES Separate but Equal Training for Black Army Nurses? 490
PROFILE Mabel K. Staupers (1890?1989) 491
The Tuskegee Airmen 491
The Transformation of Black Soldiers 492
Black People on the Home Front 493
Black Workers: From Farm to Factory 493
The FEPC during the War 494
Anatomy of a Race Riot: Detroit, 1943
The GI Bill of Rights and Black Veterans
Old and New Protest Groups on the Home Front 495
PROFILE Bayard Rustin 496
The Transition to Peace 497
The Cold War and International Politics 497
African Americans in World Affairs: W. E. B. Du Bois and Ralph Bunche 498
Anticommunism at Home 498
Paul Robeson 498
Henry Wallace and the 1948 Presidential Election 499
Desegregating the Armed Forces 499
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
PART VI
The Black Revolution 510
21
The Freedom Movement, 1954?1965 512
The 1950s: Prosperity and Prejudice
The Road to BROWN
Constance Baker Motley and Black Lawyers in the South
Brown and the Coming Revolution
Brown II
Massive White Resistance 514
The Lynching of Emmett Till 515
New Forms of Protest: The Montgomery Bus Boycott
VOICES Letter of the Montgomery Women?s Political Council to Mayor W. A. Gayle 517
The Roots of Revolution 516
Rosa Parks 517
PROFILE Rosa Loiuse McCauley Parks (1913?2005) 518
Montgomery Improvement Association 519
Martin Luther King, Jr. 519
Walking for Freedom 520
Friends in the North 520
Victory 521
No Easy Road to Freedom: 1957?1960 521
Martin Luther King and the SCLC 521
Civil Rights Act of 1957 521
Little Rock, Arkansas 522
Black Youth Stand Up by Sitting Down 522
Sit-ins: Greensboro, Nashville, Atlanta 523
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee 524
Freedom Rides 524
A Sight to be Seen: The Movement at High Tide 525
The Election of 1960 525
PROFILE Robert Parris Moses 526
The Kennedy Administration and the Civil Rights Movement 527
Voter Registration Projects 527
The Albany Movement 528
VOICES Bernice Johnson Reagon on How to Raise a Freedom Song 528
The Birmingham Confrontation 529
A Hard Victory 530
The March on Washington 530
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 531
Mississippi Freedom Summer 533
The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 533
PROFILE Fannie Lou Hamer 534
Selma and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 535
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
22
The Struggle Continues, 1965?1980 542
The Fading Dream of Racial Integration: White Backlash and Black Nationalism 544
Malcolm X 545
Malcolm X?s New Departure 545
Stokely Carmichael and Black Power 545
The National Council of Churches 546
The Black Panther Party 547
Police Repression and the FBI?s COINTELPRO 547
VOICES The Black Panther Party Platform 548
Prisoners? Rights 549
The Inner-City Rebellions 549
Watts 550
Newark 550
Detroit 550
The Kerner Commission 551
Difficulties in Creating the Great Society 551
Johnson and the War in Vietnam 552
Black Americans and the Vietnam War 553
Project 100,000 553
Johnson: Vietnam Destroys the Great Society 554
VOICES They Called Each Other ?Bloods? 555
PROFILE Muhammad Ali 556
King: Searching for a New Strategy 557
King on the Vietnam War 557
King?s Murder 557
The Black Arts Movement and Black Consciousness
Profile Lorraine Hansberry
Poetry and Theater 559
Music 560
The Second Phase of the Black Student Movement 561
The Orangeburg Massacre 561
Black Studies 561
The Election of 1968 562
The Nixon Presidency 563
The ?Moynihan Report? and FAP 563
Busing 564
Nixon and the War 564
Nixon?s Downfall 565
The Rise of Black Elected Officials 565
The Gary Convention and the Black Political Agenda 566
Black People Gain Local Offices 567
Economic Downturn 567
Black Americans and the Carter Presidency 567
Black Appointees 567
Carter?s Domestic Policies 569
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
23
Black Politics, White Backlash, 1980 to Present 576
Ronald Reagan and the Conservative Reaction 580
Dismantling the Great Society 581
Black Conservatives 581
The Thomas?Hill Controversy 581
Debating the ?Old" and the ?New" Civil Rights 582
Affirmative Action 582
VOICES Black Women in Defense of Themselves 583
The Backlash 584
Black Political Activism in the Age of Conservative Reaction
The King Holiday 586
TransAfrica and the Anti-apartheid Movement 586
Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow Coalition 587
Policing the Black Community 588
Human Rights in America 589
The Clinton Presidency
?It?s The Economy, Stupid!? 591
Clinton Signs the Welfare Reform Act
Republicans Challenge Clinton
Black Politics in the New Millennium: The Contested 2000
Presidential Election
Gore v. Bush
VOICES Condoleezza Rice Justifies the Iraq War
Republican Triumph
George W. Bush?s Black Cabinet
Education Reform: Leave No Child Behind
Reparations
HIV/Aids in America and Africa
September 11, 2001
War
The 2004 Presidential Election
President Bush?s Second Term
The Iraq War
PROFILE Barack Obama
Hurricane Katrina and the Destruction of Black New Orleans
VOICES Clarence Page, ?When Sluggishness Isn?t Ok?
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact

24
African Americans at the Dawn of a New Millennium
Progress and Poverty: Income, Education, and Health
African Americans?? Growing Economic Security
The Persistence of Black Poverty
Racial Incarceration
Education One-Half Century after Brown
The Health Gap
African Americans at The Center Of Art And Culture
The Hip-Hop Nation
PROFILE Bob and Ziggy Marley and Black Internationalism
Origins of a New Music: A Generation Defines Itself
Rap Music Goes Mainstream
Gangsta Rap
African-American Intellectuals
Afrocentricity
African-American Studies Matures
Black Religion at the Dawn of the Millennium
Black Christians on the Front Line
Tensions in the Black Church
Black Muslims
Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam
Millennium Marches
Complicating Black Identity in the Twenty-First Century
Immigration and African Americans
Black Feminism
Gay and Lesbian African Americans
VOICES E. Lynn Harris
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Retracing the Odyssey
[icon Myhistorylab]: Review, Research, & Interact
Visualizing the Past
Interpreting the Past
Epilogue: ?A Nation Within a Nation?
Interpreting the Past Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois and Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr. and the Quest for African American Equality
Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts
Biographical Glossary
Appendix A?1
Credits C?1
Index I?1