简介
Inside you’ll find the essential principles of radiation and the technical skills necessary for the safe and effective use of radiation in the dental office. The book serves as both a textbook and training manual by providing comprehensive coverage of basic theory and complete technical instruction. Procedures are presented in a detailed step-by-step format with accompanying illustrations, rationales, and charting notes. Includes a new interactive student CD-ROM. * Chapters are short with topics separated into easy-to-digest sections. * Content is divided into six parts, covering all necessary aspects of dental radiography * Step-by-step procedures throughout the chapters include rationales and charting notes along with essential illustrations and photos to demonstrate techniques properly. * Quiz questions for each chapter help students assess knowledge and comprehension. * Example boxes are used throughout the chapters to further explain a process or why it is performed a certain way.
目录
Radiation Basics
Radiation History p. 2
Dentistry and X-radiation p. 3
Basic Terminology p. 3
Importance of Dental Radiographs p. 3
Discovery of X-radiation p. 3
Roentgen and the Discovery of X-rays p. 3
Earlier Experimentation p. 4
Pioneers in Dental X-radiation p. 5
History of Dental X-ray Equipment p. 5
History of Dental X-ray Film p. 6
History of Dental Radiographic Techniques p. 7
Radiation Physics p. 9
Fundamental Concepts p. 10
Atomic and Molecular Structure p. 10
Ionization, Radiation, and Radioactivity p. 12
Ionizing Radiation p. 13
X-radiation p. 15
X-ray Machine p. 15
Component Parts p. 15
X-ray Tube p. 17
X-ray Generating Apparatus p. 17
Production of X-radiation p. 19
Production of Dental X-rays p. 19
Types of X-rays Produced p. 20
Definitions of X-radiation p. 20
Interactions of X-radiation p. 21
No Interaction p. 21
Absorption of Energy and Photoelectric Effect p. 21
Compton Scatter p. 22
Coherent Scatter p. 22
Radiation Characteristics p. 28
X-ray Beam Quality p. 29
Voltage and Kilovoltage p. 29
Kilovoltage Peak p. 29
Film Density and Kilovoltage Peak p. 30
Film Contrast and Kilovoltage Peak p. 30
Exposure Time and Kilovoltage Peak p. 30
X-ray Beam Quantity p. 31
Amperage and Milliamperage p. 31
Milliampere-Seconds p. 32
Film Density and Milliamperage p. 32
Exposure Time and Milliamperage p. 32
X-ray Beam Intensity p. 32
Kilovoltage Peak p. 33
Milliamperage p. 33
Exposure Time p. 33
Distance p. 33
Inverse Square Law p. 33
Half-Value Layer p. 34
Radiation Biology p. 38
Radiation Injury p. 39
Mechanisms of Injury p. 39
Theories of Radiation Injury p. 40
Dose-Response Curve p. 40
Stochastic and Nonstochastic Radiation Effects p. 40
Sequence of Radiation Injury p. 41
Determining Factors for Radiation Injury p. 41
Radiation Effects p. 42
Short-Term and Long-Term Effects p. 42
Somatic and Genetic Effects p. 42
Radiation Effects on Cells p. 43
Radiation Effects on Tissues and Organs p. 43
Radiation Measurements p. 43
Units of Measurement p. 43
Exposure Measurement p. 43
Dose Measurement p. 44
Dose Equivalent Measurement p. 44
Measurements Used in Dental Radiography p. 45
Radiation Risks p. 45
Sources of Radiation Exposure p. 45
Risk and Risk Estimates p. 45
Dental Radiation and Exposure Risks p. 46
Patient Exposure and Dose p. 46
Risk versus Benefit of Dental Radiographs p. 46
Radiation Protection p. 51
Patient Protection p. 52
Before Exposure p. 52
During Exposure p. 53
After Exposure p. 58
Operator Protection p. 59
Protection Guidelines p. 59
Radiation Monitoring p. 60
Radiation Exposure Guidelines p. 60
Radiation Safety Legislation p. 60
Maximum Permissible Dose p. 61
Maximum Accumulated Dose p. 61
ALARA Concept p. 61
Radiation Protection and Patient Education p. 61
Equipment, Film, and Processing Basics
Dental X-ray Equipment p. 66
Dental X-ray Machines p. 67
Performance Standards p. 67
Types of Machines p. 67
Component Parts p. 67
Dental X-ray Film Holders and Beam Alignment Devices p. 69
Types of Film Holders p. 69
Types of Beam Alignment Devices p. 69
Dental X-ray Film p. 74
Dental X-ray Film Composition and Latent Image p. 75
Film Composition p. 75
Latent Image Formation p. 76
Types of Dental X-ray film p. 77
Intraoral Film p. 77
Extraoral Film p. 81
Duplicating Film p. 84
Film Storage and Protection p. 85
Dental X-ray Image Characteristics p. 89
Dental X-ray Image Characteristics p. 90
Visual Characteristics p. 90
Density p. 91
Contrast p. 92
Geometric Characteristics p. 94
Sharpness p. 94
Magnification p. 95
Distortion p. 96
Dental X-ray Film Processing p. 101
Film Processing p. 102
Film Processing Fundamentals p. 102
Film Processing Steps p. 104
Film Processing Solutions p. 104
The Darkroom p. 106
Room Requirements p. 106
Equipment Requirements p. 107
Manual Film Processing p. 109
Equipment Accessories p. 109
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 110
Care and Maintenance p. 110
Automatic Film Processing p. 113
Component Parts of Automatic Processor p. 113
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 114
Care and Maintenance p. 114
Film Duplication p. 115
Equipment Requirements p. 115
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 115
Processing Problems and Solutions p. 116
Time and Temperature p. 116
Chemical Contamination p. 117
Film Handling p. 119
Lighting p. 122
Quality Assurance in the Dental Office p. 128
Quality Control Tests p. 129
Equipment and Supplies p. 129
Film Processing p. 130
Quality Administration Procedures p. 134
Operator Competence p. 135
Dental Radiographer Basics
Dental Radiographs and the Dental Radiographer p. 140
Dental Radiographs p. 141
Importance of Dental Radiographs p. 141
Uses of Dental Radiographs p. 141
Benefits of Dental Radiographs p. 141
Information Found on Dental Radiographs p. 141
The Dental Radiographer p. 142
Knowledge and Skill Requirements p. 142
Duties and Responsibilities p. 142
Professional Goals p. 142
Patient Relations and the Dental Radiographer p. 145
Interpersonal Skills p. 146
Communication Skills p. 146
Facilitation Skills p. 147
Patient Relations p. 147
First Impressions and Patient Relations p. 147
Chairside Manner and Patient Relations p. 148
Attitude and Patient Relations p. 148
Patient Education and the Dental Radiographer p. 150
Importance of Patient Education p. 151
Methods of Patient Education p. 151
Common Questions and Answers p. 151
Necessity Questions p. 152
Exposure Questions p. 152
Safety Questions p. 153
Miscellaneous Questions p. 153
Legal Issues and the Dental Radiographer p. 156
Legal Issues and Dental Radiography p. 157
Federal and State Regulations p. 157
Licensure Requirements p. 157
Legal Issues and the Dental Patient p. 157
Risk Management p. 157
Malpractice Issues p. 158
Patient Records p. 159
Patients Who Refuse Dental Radiographs p. 159
Infection Control and the Dental Radiographer p. 162
Infection Control Basics p. 163
Rationale for Infection Control p. 163
Infection Control Terminology p. 163
Guidelines for Infection Control Practices p. 164
Protective Attire and Barrier Techniques p. 164
Handwashing and Care of Hands p. 165
Sterilization or Disinfection of Instruments p. 165
Cleaning and Disinfection of Dental Unit and Environmental Surfaces p. 165
Infection Control in Dental Radiography p. 165
Infection Control Procedures Used Before Exposure p. 166
Infection Control Procedures Used During Exposure p. 168
Infection Control Procedures Used After Exposure p. 168
Infection Control Procedures Used for Processing p. 169
Technique Basics
Introduction to Radiographic Examinations p. 176
Intraoral Radiographic Examination p. 177
Types of Intraoral Radiographic Examinations p. 177
Complete Mouth Radiographic Series p. 177
Diagnostic Criteria for Intraoral Radiographs p. 178
Extraoral Radiographic Examination p. 178
Prescribing of Dental Radiographs p. 178
Paralleling Technique p. 181
Basic Concepts p. 182
Terminology p. 182
Principles of Paralleling Technique p. 183
Film Holders p. 183
Film for Paralleling Technique p. 185
Rules for Paralleling Technique p. 185
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 186
Patient Preparation p. 186
Equipment Preparation p. 186
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements p. 189
Film Placement for Paralleling Technique p. 190
Modifications in Paralleling Technique p. 193
Shallow Palate p. 193
Bony Growths p. 193
Mandibular Premolar Region p. 208
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 210
Advantages of Paralleling Technique p. 210
Disadvantages of Paralleling Technique p. 210
Bisecting Technique p. 216
Basic Concepts p. 217
Terminology p. 217
Principles of Bisecting Technique p. 217
Film Stabilization p. 219
Film for Bisecting Technique p. 219
Angulation of Position-Indicating Device p. 220
Rules for Bisecting Technique p. 223
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 223
Patient Preparation p. 224
Equipment Preparation p. 224
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements p. 224
Film Placement p. 226
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 248
Advantages of Bisecting Technique p. 248
Disadvantages of Bisecting Technique p. 248
Bite-Wing Technique p. 253
Basic Concepts p. 254
Terminology p. 254
Principles of Bite-Wing Technique p. 255
Film Holder and Bite-Wing Tab p. 255
Film for Bite-Wing Technique p. 256
Angulation of Position-Indicating Device p. 257
Rules for Bite-Wing Technique p. 257
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 259
Patient Preparation p. 259
Equipment Preparation p. 259
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements p. 259
Film Placement for Bite-Wing Technique p. 260
Vertical Bite-Wings p. 260
Modifications of Bite-Wing Technique p. 260
Edentulous Spaces p. 268
Bony Growths p. 268
Exposure and Technique Errors p. 273
Film Exposure Errors p. 274
Exposure Problems p. 274
Time and Exposure Factor Problems p. 274
Technique Errors (Periapical Films) p. 275
Film Placement Problems p. 275
Angulation Problems p. 276
PID Alignment Problems p. 277
Technique Errors (Bite-Wing Films) p. 278
Film Placement Problems p. 278
Angulation Problems p. 279
PID Alignment Problems p. 280
Miscellaneous Technique Errors p. 281
Film Bending p. 281
Film Creasing p. 281
Phalangioma p. 282
Double Exposure p. 282
Movement p. 282
Reversed Film p. 282
Occlusal and Localization Techniques p. 287
Occlusal Technique p. 288
Basic Concepts p. 288
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 288
Localization Techniques p. 295
Basic Concepts p. 295
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 297
Panoramic Radiography p. 304
Basic Concepts p. 305
Purpose and Use p. 306
Fundamentals p. 306
Equipment p. 307
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 310
Equipment Preparation p. 311
Patient Preparation p. 311
Patient Positioning p. 311
Common Errors p. 313
Patient Preparation Errors p. 313
Patient Positioning Errors p. 313
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 317
Advantages of Panoramic Radiography p. 317
Disadvantages of Panoramic Radiography p. 319
Extraoral Radiography p. 323
Basic Concepts p. 324
Purpose and Use p. 324
Equipment p. 324
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 326
Equipment Preparation p. 326
Patient Preparation p. 326
Patient Positioning p. 326
Extraoral Projection Techniques p. 327
Lateral Jaw Radiography p. 327
Skull Radiography p. 328
Temporomandibular Joint Radiography p. 337
Cone-Beam Technology p. 337
Digital Radiography p. 343
Basic Concepts p. 344
Terminology p. 344
Purpose and Use p. 344
Fundamentals p. 345
Radiation Exposure p. 346
Equipment p. 347
Types of Digital Imaging p. 348
Direct Digital Imaging p. 350
Indirect Digital Imaging p. 350
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 350
Sensor Preparation p. 350
Sensor Placement p. 351
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 351
Advantages of Digital Radiography p. 351
Disadvantages of Digital Radiography p. 353
Radiography of Patients with Special Needs p. 357
Patients with the Gag Reflex p. 358
Patient Management p. 358
Extreme Cases of Gag Reflex p. 359
Patients with Disabilities p. 359
Physical Disabilities p. 360
Developmental Disabilities p. 360
Patients with Specific Dental Needs p. 360
Pediatric Patients p. 361
Endodontic Patients p. 362
Edentulous Patients p. 362
Normal Anatomy and Film Mounting Basics
Normal Anatomy: Intraoral Films p. 368
Definitions of General Terms p. 369
Types of Bone p. 369
Prominences of Bone p. 370
Spaces and Depressions in Bone p. 371
Miscellaneous Terms p. 372
Normal Anatomic Landmarks p. 373
Bony Landmarks of the Maxilla p. 373
Bony Landmarks of the Mandible p. 382
Normal Tooth Anatomy p. 388
Tooth Structure p. 388
Supporting Structures p. 389
Film Mounting and Viewing p. 395
Film Mounting p. 396
Basic Concepts p. 396
Normal Anatomy and Film Mounting p. 398
Film Mounting Methods p. 398
Step-by-Step Procedure p. 399
Film Viewing p. 403
Basic Concepts p. 403
Step-by-Step Procedure p. 404
Normal Anatomy: Panoramic Films p. 408
Normal Anatomic Landmarks p. 409
Bony Landmarks of Maxilla and Surrounding Structures p. 409
Bony Landmarks of Mandible and Surrounding Structures p. 412
Air Space Images Seen on Panoramic Radiographs p. 415
Soft Tissue Images Seen on Panoramic Radiographs p. 416
Radiographic Interpretation Basics
Introduction to Radiographic Interpretation p. 422
Basic Concepts p. 423
Interpretation Terminology p. 423
Importance of Interpretation p. 423
Guidelines p. 423
Who Interprets Radiographs? p. 423
Interpretation versus Diagnosis p. 423
When and Where Are Radiographs Interpreted? p. 424
Interpretation and Patient Education p. 424
Descriptive Terminology p. 426
Definition and Uses p. 427
What Is Descriptive Terminology? p. 427
Why Use Descriptive Terminology? p. 427
Descriptive Terminology versus Diagnosis p. 427
Review of Basic Terms p. 427
Radiograph versus X-ray p. 427
Radiolucent versus Radiopaque p. 427
Terms Used to Describe Radiolucent Lesions p. 428
Terms Used to Describe Radiopaque Lesions p. 432
Identification of Restorations, Dental Materials, and Foreign Objects p. 439
Identification of Restorations p. 440
Amalgam Restorations p. 440
Gold Restorations p. 441
Stainless Steel and Chrome Crowns p. 442
Post and Core Restorations p. 443
Porcelain Restorations p. 443
Composite Restorations p. 445
Acrylic Restorations p. 445
Identification of Materials Used in Dentistry p. 446
Materials Used in Restorative Dentistry p. 446
Materials Used in Endodontics p. 446
Materials Used in Prosthodontics p. 446
Materials Used in Orthodontics p. 448
Materials Used in Oral Surgery p. 448
Identification of Miscellaneous Objects p. 448
Jewelry p. 448
Eyeglasses and Napkin Chain p. 452
Interpretation of Dental Caries p. 457
Description of Caries p. 458
Detection of Caries p. 458
Clinical Examination p. 458
Radiographic Examination p. 458
Interpretation of Caries p. 459
Interpretation Tips p. 459
Factors Influencing Caries Interpretation p. 459
Radiographic Classification of Caries p. 459
Interproximal Caries p. 459
Occlusal Caries p. 460
Buccal and Lingual Caries p. 462
Root Surface Caries p. 462
Recurrent Caries p. 464
Rampant Caries p. 464
Interpretation of Periodontal Disease p. 468
Description of the Periodontium p. 469
Description of Periodontal Disease p. 470
Detection of Periodontal Disease p. 470
Clinical Examination p. 470
Radiographic Examination p. 470
Radiographic Interpretation of Periodontal Disease p. 471
Bone Loss p. 471
Classification of Periodontal Disease p. 473
Predisposing Factors p. 475
Interpretation of Trauma and Pulpal and Periapical Lesions p. 481
Radiographic Changes Caused by Trauma p. 482
Fractures p. 482
Injuries p. 483
Radiographic Changes Caused by Resorption p. 484
External Resorption p. 484
Internal Resorption p. 485
Radiographic Features of Pulpal Lesions p. 485
Pulpal Sclerosis p. 485
Pulpal Obliteration p. 485
Pulp Stones p. 485
Radiographic Features of Periapical Lesions p. 487
Periapical Radiolucencies p. 487
Periapical Radiopacities p. 489
Radiation History p. 2
Dentistry and X-radiation p. 3
Basic Terminology p. 3
Importance of Dental Radiographs p. 3
Discovery of X-radiation p. 3
Roentgen and the Discovery of X-rays p. 3
Earlier Experimentation p. 4
Pioneers in Dental X-radiation p. 5
History of Dental X-ray Equipment p. 5
History of Dental X-ray Film p. 6
History of Dental Radiographic Techniques p. 7
Radiation Physics p. 9
Fundamental Concepts p. 10
Atomic and Molecular Structure p. 10
Ionization, Radiation, and Radioactivity p. 12
Ionizing Radiation p. 13
X-radiation p. 15
X-ray Machine p. 15
Component Parts p. 15
X-ray Tube p. 17
X-ray Generating Apparatus p. 17
Production of X-radiation p. 19
Production of Dental X-rays p. 19
Types of X-rays Produced p. 20
Definitions of X-radiation p. 20
Interactions of X-radiation p. 21
No Interaction p. 21
Absorption of Energy and Photoelectric Effect p. 21
Compton Scatter p. 22
Coherent Scatter p. 22
Radiation Characteristics p. 28
X-ray Beam Quality p. 29
Voltage and Kilovoltage p. 29
Kilovoltage Peak p. 29
Film Density and Kilovoltage Peak p. 30
Film Contrast and Kilovoltage Peak p. 30
Exposure Time and Kilovoltage Peak p. 30
X-ray Beam Quantity p. 31
Amperage and Milliamperage p. 31
Milliampere-Seconds p. 32
Film Density and Milliamperage p. 32
Exposure Time and Milliamperage p. 32
X-ray Beam Intensity p. 32
Kilovoltage Peak p. 33
Milliamperage p. 33
Exposure Time p. 33
Distance p. 33
Inverse Square Law p. 33
Half-Value Layer p. 34
Radiation Biology p. 38
Radiation Injury p. 39
Mechanisms of Injury p. 39
Theories of Radiation Injury p. 40
Dose-Response Curve p. 40
Stochastic and Nonstochastic Radiation Effects p. 40
Sequence of Radiation Injury p. 41
Determining Factors for Radiation Injury p. 41
Radiation Effects p. 42
Short-Term and Long-Term Effects p. 42
Somatic and Genetic Effects p. 42
Radiation Effects on Cells p. 43
Radiation Effects on Tissues and Organs p. 43
Radiation Measurements p. 43
Units of Measurement p. 43
Exposure Measurement p. 43
Dose Measurement p. 44
Dose Equivalent Measurement p. 44
Measurements Used in Dental Radiography p. 45
Radiation Risks p. 45
Sources of Radiation Exposure p. 45
Risk and Risk Estimates p. 45
Dental Radiation and Exposure Risks p. 46
Patient Exposure and Dose p. 46
Risk versus Benefit of Dental Radiographs p. 46
Radiation Protection p. 51
Patient Protection p. 52
Before Exposure p. 52
During Exposure p. 53
After Exposure p. 58
Operator Protection p. 59
Protection Guidelines p. 59
Radiation Monitoring p. 60
Radiation Exposure Guidelines p. 60
Radiation Safety Legislation p. 60
Maximum Permissible Dose p. 61
Maximum Accumulated Dose p. 61
ALARA Concept p. 61
Radiation Protection and Patient Education p. 61
Equipment, Film, and Processing Basics
Dental X-ray Equipment p. 66
Dental X-ray Machines p. 67
Performance Standards p. 67
Types of Machines p. 67
Component Parts p. 67
Dental X-ray Film Holders and Beam Alignment Devices p. 69
Types of Film Holders p. 69
Types of Beam Alignment Devices p. 69
Dental X-ray Film p. 74
Dental X-ray Film Composition and Latent Image p. 75
Film Composition p. 75
Latent Image Formation p. 76
Types of Dental X-ray film p. 77
Intraoral Film p. 77
Extraoral Film p. 81
Duplicating Film p. 84
Film Storage and Protection p. 85
Dental X-ray Image Characteristics p. 89
Dental X-ray Image Characteristics p. 90
Visual Characteristics p. 90
Density p. 91
Contrast p. 92
Geometric Characteristics p. 94
Sharpness p. 94
Magnification p. 95
Distortion p. 96
Dental X-ray Film Processing p. 101
Film Processing p. 102
Film Processing Fundamentals p. 102
Film Processing Steps p. 104
Film Processing Solutions p. 104
The Darkroom p. 106
Room Requirements p. 106
Equipment Requirements p. 107
Manual Film Processing p. 109
Equipment Accessories p. 109
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 110
Care and Maintenance p. 110
Automatic Film Processing p. 113
Component Parts of Automatic Processor p. 113
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 114
Care and Maintenance p. 114
Film Duplication p. 115
Equipment Requirements p. 115
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 115
Processing Problems and Solutions p. 116
Time and Temperature p. 116
Chemical Contamination p. 117
Film Handling p. 119
Lighting p. 122
Quality Assurance in the Dental Office p. 128
Quality Control Tests p. 129
Equipment and Supplies p. 129
Film Processing p. 130
Quality Administration Procedures p. 134
Operator Competence p. 135
Dental Radiographer Basics
Dental Radiographs and the Dental Radiographer p. 140
Dental Radiographs p. 141
Importance of Dental Radiographs p. 141
Uses of Dental Radiographs p. 141
Benefits of Dental Radiographs p. 141
Information Found on Dental Radiographs p. 141
The Dental Radiographer p. 142
Knowledge and Skill Requirements p. 142
Duties and Responsibilities p. 142
Professional Goals p. 142
Patient Relations and the Dental Radiographer p. 145
Interpersonal Skills p. 146
Communication Skills p. 146
Facilitation Skills p. 147
Patient Relations p. 147
First Impressions and Patient Relations p. 147
Chairside Manner and Patient Relations p. 148
Attitude and Patient Relations p. 148
Patient Education and the Dental Radiographer p. 150
Importance of Patient Education p. 151
Methods of Patient Education p. 151
Common Questions and Answers p. 151
Necessity Questions p. 152
Exposure Questions p. 152
Safety Questions p. 153
Miscellaneous Questions p. 153
Legal Issues and the Dental Radiographer p. 156
Legal Issues and Dental Radiography p. 157
Federal and State Regulations p. 157
Licensure Requirements p. 157
Legal Issues and the Dental Patient p. 157
Risk Management p. 157
Malpractice Issues p. 158
Patient Records p. 159
Patients Who Refuse Dental Radiographs p. 159
Infection Control and the Dental Radiographer p. 162
Infection Control Basics p. 163
Rationale for Infection Control p. 163
Infection Control Terminology p. 163
Guidelines for Infection Control Practices p. 164
Protective Attire and Barrier Techniques p. 164
Handwashing and Care of Hands p. 165
Sterilization or Disinfection of Instruments p. 165
Cleaning and Disinfection of Dental Unit and Environmental Surfaces p. 165
Infection Control in Dental Radiography p. 165
Infection Control Procedures Used Before Exposure p. 166
Infection Control Procedures Used During Exposure p. 168
Infection Control Procedures Used After Exposure p. 168
Infection Control Procedures Used for Processing p. 169
Technique Basics
Introduction to Radiographic Examinations p. 176
Intraoral Radiographic Examination p. 177
Types of Intraoral Radiographic Examinations p. 177
Complete Mouth Radiographic Series p. 177
Diagnostic Criteria for Intraoral Radiographs p. 178
Extraoral Radiographic Examination p. 178
Prescribing of Dental Radiographs p. 178
Paralleling Technique p. 181
Basic Concepts p. 182
Terminology p. 182
Principles of Paralleling Technique p. 183
Film Holders p. 183
Film for Paralleling Technique p. 185
Rules for Paralleling Technique p. 185
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 186
Patient Preparation p. 186
Equipment Preparation p. 186
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements p. 189
Film Placement for Paralleling Technique p. 190
Modifications in Paralleling Technique p. 193
Shallow Palate p. 193
Bony Growths p. 193
Mandibular Premolar Region p. 208
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 210
Advantages of Paralleling Technique p. 210
Disadvantages of Paralleling Technique p. 210
Bisecting Technique p. 216
Basic Concepts p. 217
Terminology p. 217
Principles of Bisecting Technique p. 217
Film Stabilization p. 219
Film for Bisecting Technique p. 219
Angulation of Position-Indicating Device p. 220
Rules for Bisecting Technique p. 223
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 223
Patient Preparation p. 224
Equipment Preparation p. 224
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements p. 224
Film Placement p. 226
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 248
Advantages of Bisecting Technique p. 248
Disadvantages of Bisecting Technique p. 248
Bite-Wing Technique p. 253
Basic Concepts p. 254
Terminology p. 254
Principles of Bite-Wing Technique p. 255
Film Holder and Bite-Wing Tab p. 255
Film for Bite-Wing Technique p. 256
Angulation of Position-Indicating Device p. 257
Rules for Bite-Wing Technique p. 257
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 259
Patient Preparation p. 259
Equipment Preparation p. 259
Exposure Sequence for Film Placements p. 259
Film Placement for Bite-Wing Technique p. 260
Vertical Bite-Wings p. 260
Modifications of Bite-Wing Technique p. 260
Edentulous Spaces p. 268
Bony Growths p. 268
Exposure and Technique Errors p. 273
Film Exposure Errors p. 274
Exposure Problems p. 274
Time and Exposure Factor Problems p. 274
Technique Errors (Periapical Films) p. 275
Film Placement Problems p. 275
Angulation Problems p. 276
PID Alignment Problems p. 277
Technique Errors (Bite-Wing Films) p. 278
Film Placement Problems p. 278
Angulation Problems p. 279
PID Alignment Problems p. 280
Miscellaneous Technique Errors p. 281
Film Bending p. 281
Film Creasing p. 281
Phalangioma p. 282
Double Exposure p. 282
Movement p. 282
Reversed Film p. 282
Occlusal and Localization Techniques p. 287
Occlusal Technique p. 288
Basic Concepts p. 288
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 288
Localization Techniques p. 295
Basic Concepts p. 295
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 297
Panoramic Radiography p. 304
Basic Concepts p. 305
Purpose and Use p. 306
Fundamentals p. 306
Equipment p. 307
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 310
Equipment Preparation p. 311
Patient Preparation p. 311
Patient Positioning p. 311
Common Errors p. 313
Patient Preparation Errors p. 313
Patient Positioning Errors p. 313
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 317
Advantages of Panoramic Radiography p. 317
Disadvantages of Panoramic Radiography p. 319
Extraoral Radiography p. 323
Basic Concepts p. 324
Purpose and Use p. 324
Equipment p. 324
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 326
Equipment Preparation p. 326
Patient Preparation p. 326
Patient Positioning p. 326
Extraoral Projection Techniques p. 327
Lateral Jaw Radiography p. 327
Skull Radiography p. 328
Temporomandibular Joint Radiography p. 337
Cone-Beam Technology p. 337
Digital Radiography p. 343
Basic Concepts p. 344
Terminology p. 344
Purpose and Use p. 344
Fundamentals p. 345
Radiation Exposure p. 346
Equipment p. 347
Types of Digital Imaging p. 348
Direct Digital Imaging p. 350
Indirect Digital Imaging p. 350
Step-by-Step Procedures p. 350
Sensor Preparation p. 350
Sensor Placement p. 351
Advantages and Disadvantages p. 351
Advantages of Digital Radiography p. 351
Disadvantages of Digital Radiography p. 353
Radiography of Patients with Special Needs p. 357
Patients with the Gag Reflex p. 358
Patient Management p. 358
Extreme Cases of Gag Reflex p. 359
Patients with Disabilities p. 359
Physical Disabilities p. 360
Developmental Disabilities p. 360
Patients with Specific Dental Needs p. 360
Pediatric Patients p. 361
Endodontic Patients p. 362
Edentulous Patients p. 362
Normal Anatomy and Film Mounting Basics
Normal Anatomy: Intraoral Films p. 368
Definitions of General Terms p. 369
Types of Bone p. 369
Prominences of Bone p. 370
Spaces and Depressions in Bone p. 371
Miscellaneous Terms p. 372
Normal Anatomic Landmarks p. 373
Bony Landmarks of the Maxilla p. 373
Bony Landmarks of the Mandible p. 382
Normal Tooth Anatomy p. 388
Tooth Structure p. 388
Supporting Structures p. 389
Film Mounting and Viewing p. 395
Film Mounting p. 396
Basic Concepts p. 396
Normal Anatomy and Film Mounting p. 398
Film Mounting Methods p. 398
Step-by-Step Procedure p. 399
Film Viewing p. 403
Basic Concepts p. 403
Step-by-Step Procedure p. 404
Normal Anatomy: Panoramic Films p. 408
Normal Anatomic Landmarks p. 409
Bony Landmarks of Maxilla and Surrounding Structures p. 409
Bony Landmarks of Mandible and Surrounding Structures p. 412
Air Space Images Seen on Panoramic Radiographs p. 415
Soft Tissue Images Seen on Panoramic Radiographs p. 416
Radiographic Interpretation Basics
Introduction to Radiographic Interpretation p. 422
Basic Concepts p. 423
Interpretation Terminology p. 423
Importance of Interpretation p. 423
Guidelines p. 423
Who Interprets Radiographs? p. 423
Interpretation versus Diagnosis p. 423
When and Where Are Radiographs Interpreted? p. 424
Interpretation and Patient Education p. 424
Descriptive Terminology p. 426
Definition and Uses p. 427
What Is Descriptive Terminology? p. 427
Why Use Descriptive Terminology? p. 427
Descriptive Terminology versus Diagnosis p. 427
Review of Basic Terms p. 427
Radiograph versus X-ray p. 427
Radiolucent versus Radiopaque p. 427
Terms Used to Describe Radiolucent Lesions p. 428
Terms Used to Describe Radiopaque Lesions p. 432
Identification of Restorations, Dental Materials, and Foreign Objects p. 439
Identification of Restorations p. 440
Amalgam Restorations p. 440
Gold Restorations p. 441
Stainless Steel and Chrome Crowns p. 442
Post and Core Restorations p. 443
Porcelain Restorations p. 443
Composite Restorations p. 445
Acrylic Restorations p. 445
Identification of Materials Used in Dentistry p. 446
Materials Used in Restorative Dentistry p. 446
Materials Used in Endodontics p. 446
Materials Used in Prosthodontics p. 446
Materials Used in Orthodontics p. 448
Materials Used in Oral Surgery p. 448
Identification of Miscellaneous Objects p. 448
Jewelry p. 448
Eyeglasses and Napkin Chain p. 452
Interpretation of Dental Caries p. 457
Description of Caries p. 458
Detection of Caries p. 458
Clinical Examination p. 458
Radiographic Examination p. 458
Interpretation of Caries p. 459
Interpretation Tips p. 459
Factors Influencing Caries Interpretation p. 459
Radiographic Classification of Caries p. 459
Interproximal Caries p. 459
Occlusal Caries p. 460
Buccal and Lingual Caries p. 462
Root Surface Caries p. 462
Recurrent Caries p. 464
Rampant Caries p. 464
Interpretation of Periodontal Disease p. 468
Description of the Periodontium p. 469
Description of Periodontal Disease p. 470
Detection of Periodontal Disease p. 470
Clinical Examination p. 470
Radiographic Examination p. 470
Radiographic Interpretation of Periodontal Disease p. 471
Bone Loss p. 471
Classification of Periodontal Disease p. 473
Predisposing Factors p. 475
Interpretation of Trauma and Pulpal and Periapical Lesions p. 481
Radiographic Changes Caused by Trauma p. 482
Fractures p. 482
Injuries p. 483
Radiographic Changes Caused by Resorption p. 484
External Resorption p. 484
Internal Resorption p. 485
Radiographic Features of Pulpal Lesions p. 485
Pulpal Sclerosis p. 485
Pulpal Obliteration p. 485
Pulp Stones p. 485
Radiographic Features of Periapical Lesions p. 487
Periapical Radiolucencies p. 487
Periapical Radiopacities p. 489
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