Introduction to the Atmosphere
Introduction p. 1
Weather and Climate p. 1
The Earth's Major Surface Features p. 3
Making an Atmosphere: Gases and Gravity p. 3
Atmospheric Evolution and Composition p. 4
Trace Gases and Aerosols p. 5
Atmospheric Pressure and Density p. 12
Dividing up the Atmosphere p. 16
An Introduction to Weather Maps p. 18
Time Zones p. 21
Weather Watches, Warnings, and Advisories p. 23
The Energy Cycle p. 26
Introduction p. 27
Force, Work, and Heat p. 27
Transferring Energy in the Atmosphere p. 30
The Sun Supplies Energy to Earth p. 44
Radiative Properties of the Atmosphere p. 47
The Global Average Energy Budget: Heat Is Transferred from the Surface to the Atmosphere p. 50
Temperature p. 56
Introduction p. 57
Surface Temperature p. 57
Surface Energy Budget p. 58
Temperature Cycles p. 59
Temperature Variation with Height p. 74
Wind-Chill Temperature p. 79
Temperature and Agriculture p. 80
Water in the Atmosphere p. 84
Introduction p. 85
Evaporation: The Source of Atmospheric Water p. 86
Measuring Water Vapor in the Air p. 86
Condensation and Deposition: Cloud Formation p. 94
Cloud Classification p. 101
Clouds and the Greenhouse Effect p. 110
Cloud Composition p. 112
Precipitation p. 112
Clouds and Precipitation Near Mountains p. 122
Observing the Atmosphere p. 126
Introduction p. 127
Meteorological Observations p. 127
Direct Measurements of Surface Conditions p. 127
Direct Measurements of Upper-Air Weather Observations p. 132
Indirect Methods of Observing Weather p. 133
Atmospheric Optics p. 147
Atmospheric Forces and Wind p. 158
Introduction p. 159
Magnitude and Direction of Forces p. 159
Laws of Motion p. 160
Forces That Move the Air p. 162
Putting Forces Together: Atmospheric Force-Balances p. 170
Observations of Upper-Level and Surface Wind p. 176
Putting Force-Balances Together: The Thermal Wind p. 179
Putting Horizontal and Vertical Winds Together p. 181
Sea Breezes p. 181
Scales of Motion p. 183
Global-Scale Winds p. 188
Introduction p. 189
What Are Conceptual Models? p. 190
Observations Our Model Should Explain p. 191
A Simple Conceptual Model of Global Circulation Patterns p. 192
Upper-Air Midlatitude Westerlies p. 199
The Poleward Transport of Energy p. 201
Seasonal Variations p. 203
Monsoons p. 205
Atmosphere--Ocean Interactions: El Nino and Tropical Cyclones p. 208
Introduction p. 209
Oceanography p. 209
Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes and Typhoons p. 223
How Do We Observe and Forecast Tropical Cyclones? Past, Present, and Future p. 242
Air Masses and Fronts p. 249
Introduction p. 249
What Is an Air Mass? p. 249
Atmospheric Stability Revisited p. 253
Air Masses Affecting North America p. 254
Air Mass Modification p. 258
Fronts p. 260
Extratropical Cyclones and Anticyclones p. 270
Introduction p. 271
A Time and Place of Tragedy p. 272
A Life Cycle of Growth and Death p. 273
Day One: Birth of an Extratropical Cyclone p. 274
Day Two: With the Fitz p. 278
Day Three: The Mature Cyclone p. 287
Day Four (and Beyond): Death p. 296
The Extratropical Anticyclone p. 299
Anticyclones and Another Fitzgerald Tragedy p. 301
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes p. 306
Introduction p. 307
What Is a Thunderstorm? p. 307
Thunderstorm Distribution p. 308
Factors Affecting Thunderstorm Growth and Development p. 308
Types of Thunderstorms p. 312
The Tornado p. 320
Other Thunderstorm Severe Weather p. 330
Small-Scale Winds p. 338
Introduction p. 339
Friction in the Air: Turbulent "Eddies" p. 339
A Tour of Small-Scale Winds p. 342
The East and South p. 342
The Midwest p. 348
The Great Plains p. 350
The West p. 353
The Big Picture p. 358
Weather Forecasting p. 361
Methods of Forecasting by People p. 363
A Real Life-or-Death Forecast: D-Day, June 1944 p. 368
L.F. Richardson and the Dawn of Numerical Weather Forecasting p. 372
The Numerical Weather Prediction Process, Then and Now p. 376
Modern Numerical Weather Prediction Models p. 382
A Real Life-or-Death Forecast: The "Storm of the Century," March 1993 p. 386
Why Forecasts Still Go Wrong Today p. 392
Forecasts of Forecast Accuracy: Ensemble Forecasting p. 394
Pushing the Envelope: Numerical Nowcasts and Long-Range Prediction p. 396
The Proper Perspective p. 396
Past and Present Climates p. 400
Introduction p. 401
Defining Climate p. 401
Climate Controls p. 402
Classifying Today's Climate Zones p. 402
Past Climates: The Clues p. 411
Past Climates: The Change Mechanisms p. 419
Human Influences on Climate p. 430
Introduction p. 431
Observations of Global Warming p. 431
Feedback Mechanisms p. 432
Air Pollution p. 433
The Stratospheric Ozone Hole p. 436
Changing Land Surfaces p. 439
Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming p. 442
Climate Change Assessment p. 449
Closure p. 452
Glossary p. 457
Index p. 475
Credits p. 483